THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN   SERIES 


VENEZUELA 


CATHEDRAL  :     CARACAS. 


VENEZUELA 


LEONARD   V.   DALTON,  B.Sc.   (Lond.) 

FELLOW    OF    THE    GEOLOGICAL    AND    ROYAL    GEOGRAPHICAL 
SOCIETIES,    ETC. 


WITH    A    MAP    AND    54    ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW   YORK:    CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS 
LONDON  :    T.   FISHER   UNWIN 
1912 


r-" 


% 


(All  rights  reserved.) 


TO 

D.  R.  R. 


251276 


INTRODUCTORY    NOTE 

The  author  is  desirous  of  expressing  his  apprecia- 
tion of  the  continued  courtesy  and  kindness  rendered 
during  his  stay  in  Venezuela  by  the  British  Charge 
d'Affaires,  Mr.  W.  E.  O'Reilly,  by  Mr.  E.  A. 
WaUis,  and  other  British  residents,  as  well  as  the 
warm  reception  accorded  by  the  Venezuelan  officials 
throughout  the   parts   of  the  country  he   visited. 

Mr.  F.  A.  HoHday,  A.R.C.S.,  F.G.S.,  has  made 
himself  responsible  for  much  of  the  information  on 
the  Llanos,  and  has  assisted  largely  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  tables  in  Appendix  B.  Mr.  J.  D. 
Berrington,  of  El  Callao,  also  furnished  details 
relating  to  the  Guayana  goldfields  and  their 
surroundings . 

The  author  is  greatly  indebted  to  Mr.  N.  G.  Burch, 
F.R.G.S.,  for  reading  the  manuscript  and  for  many 
valuable  suggestions  and  criticisms.  He  would  also 
thank  Mr.  G.  T.  Wayman,  of  Caracas,  for  many 
useful  documents  and  items  of  interest  regarding 
recent  developments. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTORY   NOTE  .  .  .  .  -9 

CHAPTER   I 
PHYSICAL      DESCRIPTION      OF      THE      UNITED      STATES      OF 

VENEZUELA  .  .  .  .  .  -25 

Situation — Area — Population — Main  physical  divisions — 
The  Guayana  Highlands — Mountains,  rivers,  and  forests 
y  The  Llanos — Sdvas — Mesas — Rivers  and  cienagas — The 
Delta— XTa/jos — The  Caribbean  Hills — Serrania  Costanera 
— Serrania  Interior — Rivers — Segovia  Highlands — Drain- 
age— Vegetation — The  Andes — Portuguesa  Chain — Cor- 
dillera of  Merida — The  Sierra  Nevada — Mountain  torrents 
— Vegetation — Paramos  —  The  coastal  plain  —  Lake  of 
Maracaibo — Coro  and  Paraguana  lowlands — Climate — 
"  White-water  "  and  "  black-water  "  rivers — Seasons — 
Tierra  caliente,  templada,  and  fria — Temperature  and 
seasons — "  St.  John's  little  summer  " — Health. 

CHAPTER   H 
THE   GEOLOGICAL    HISTORY    OF    VENEZUELA  .  .       38 

Ancient  land  of  Guayana — Comparison  with  Scottish 
Highlands  —  Gneisses,  schists,  and  granite  —  Dykes — 
Roraima  Series — Strange  peaks — The  Caribbean  Series — 
"  All  that  glitters  is  not  gold  " — La  Galera — Segovia  Group 
— Natural  castles — Capacho  Limestone — The  "  Golden 
Hill  " — Cerro  de  Oro  Series — Formation  of  mountains — 
Early  outlet  of  Orinoco — Cumand  Series — Shoals  and 
'  islands — Llano  gravels — Cubagua  Beds — Igneous  rocks — 
Earthquakes — Hot  springs — A  natural  kettle — Coal — Iron 
— Gold — Copper — Lead — Petroleum  and  asphalt — Sul- 
phur —  Salt — Urao  —  Ornamental  stones  —  Wealth  in 
minerals. 

11 


12  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   III 

PAGE 

THE    PLANTS    AND   ANIMALS   OF   VENEZUELA  .  .       47 

The  glamour  of  the  South  American  forests — Hidden 
treasures — Temples  of  Nature — "  A  dim  religious  light  " 
— Bejucales — Forest  giants — Brazil  nuts — Tonka-beans — 
Rubber — Quinine — Arctic  and  tropic  forms — The  Llanos  / 
— Tierra  caliente — Natural  hothouses — Colour  and  coolness 
Paramo  plants — Monkeys — An  old  friend — Cannibalism 
— Vampires  and  bats — "Tigers"  and  "lions" — "Hand- 
some is  as  handsome  doesn't  " — Wild  horses — Dolphins 
— Prickly  mice  —  The  "  water-hog  "  —  Sloths  —  Birds — 
Many-coloured  varieties — Umbrella-bird — "  Cock-of-thc- 
rock  "  —  Toucans  —  Cuckoos  —  H  umming-birds  —  "  Who 
are  you  ? '' — Oil-birds — Parrots  and  macaws — Eagles  and 
vultures — A  national  disgrace — Game-birds — Snakes — 
Lizards — From  the  Orinoco  to  a  city  dinner — A  cup-tie 
crowd — Ferocious  fish — When  is  a  mosquito  not  a  mos- 
quito ? — Agricultural  ants — Gigantic  spiders — Ticks — A 
pugnacious  crustacean — A  rich  field. 

CHAPTER   IV 

VENEZUELA   UNDER   SPANISH    RULE   AND    BEFORE    .  .       61 

Pre-Colombian  times — No  great  empire — Primitive  Ven- 
ezuelans— Picture  rocks — Invasions — The  Guatavitab  and 
the  legend  of  El  Dorado — Amalivaca — An  Inca  prince  ? — 
Ancient  roads — The  discovery  of  Tierra  firme,  1498 — 
Alonso  de  Ojeda — The  name  "Venezuela" — A  great 
geographical  fraud — Discovery  of  the  treasures  of  the 
west — Arrival  of  the  conquistadores — The  slave  trade — 
Treacheries  of  the  Cubagua  colonists — Gonzalez  de 
Ocampo — Las  Casas — First  cities  of  the  New  World — 

\/  Settlement  of  Coro— The  Welsers — Alfmger — Ingratitude 
of  Charles  V. — New  Andalusia — Exploration  of  the  Orinoco 
:  — Cruelties  of  Alfinger — Exploration  of  the  Llanos — First 
^  Bishop  of  Venezuela — Destruction  of  New  Cadiz — Fax- 
ardo  and  the  Caracas — Cities  of  Western  Venezuela — 
The  rebellion  of  Aguirrc — Foundation  of  Caracas — 
Pimentel  moves  his  capital  to  the  new  city — Capture  of 
Caracas  by  English  buccaneers — Inaccuracies  of  Spanish 
historians — Explorations  of  Berrio  in  Guayana — Raleigh 
and  El  Dorado  —  Attempts  to  civihse  the  Indians  — 
Missions — University  of  Caracas — Guipuzcoana  Company 
— Revolution  of  Gual  and  Espaiia — Miranda — The  last 
Captain-General — The  Junta — Appeals  to  England — The 
Declaration  of  Independence. 


CONTENTS  13 


CHAPTER  V 

PAGE 

THE    REPUBLIC,    181I-I9II  .  .  .84 

Local  character  of  revolution — Declaration  of  a  Constitu- 
tion— Centralised  government — Troubles  of  the  young 
republic — The  Church  and  the  patriots— Miranda- 
Dictatorship  and  downfall — Drastic  measures  of  Monte- 
verde — Youth  and  parentage  of  Simon  Bolivar — The 
gtierra  a  «n(er/e— Dictatorship  of  Bolivar — Monteverde 
murders  four  prisoners  —  The  Mestizos  —  Massacre  of 
Spaniards  —  Murmurings  —  Retirement  of  Bolivar  — 
Royalist  victories  and  reinforcements — Morillo's  bar- 
barities— Return  of  Bolivar  to  Venezuela — Indecisive 
campaign — Renewed  discontent — Bolivar  withdraws  to 
Haiti,  but  returns — Marino's  insubordination — Massacre 
of  Barcelona — Campaign  in  the  Llanos — Arrival  of  the 
British  Legion — Congress  of  Angostura — The  march  to 
Bogota — The  republic  of  great  Colombia — Change  of 
allegiance  of  the  Mestizos — Armistice  of  Trujillo — Negotia- 
tions with  Spain — Recommencement  of  hostihties — Battle 
of  Carabobo — End  of  Spanish  power  in  Venezuela — 
Position  of  Venezuela  in  Colombia — Separatist  movement 
— Death  of  Bolivar — Paez  first  President  of  Venezuela — 
Vargas — Folly  of  Marino — Progress  of  the  country — 
Public  honours  to  Bolivar — Recognition  of  republic  by 
France  and  Spain — Commerce  and  prosperity  of  the 
country — Tyranny  of  TadeoMonagas — Abolition  of  slavery 
—  Revolution  of  Julian  Castro — Capital  temporarily  re- 
moved to  Valencia — Federalists  and  Centralists — Falcon —  .-< 
Convenio  de  Cochc — Federal  Constitution — Guzman  Blanco 
— Development  under  his  government — Revolution  of 
Crespo  —  British  Guiana  boundary  dispute  —  Cipriano 
Castro — The  Mates  revolution — Coup  d'etat  of  General 
Gomez — Centenary  celebrations — Present  prospects. 


CHAPTER   VI 

MODERN    VENEZUELA  .  .  .  .  .     I06 

Boundaries — Frontier  with  Brazil — Colombia — British 
Guiana — Internal  subdivision — States  and  territories  with 
their  capitals — Density  of  population — Constitution — De- 
partments of  the  Executive — Jefes  Civiles — Legislature — 
Senators  and  deputies — Administration  of  justice — Laws 


14  CONTENTS 

relating  to  foreigners — Marriage — Public  health — Philan- 
thropic institutions — Education — Coinage — Multiplicity 
of  terms — Towns — Typical  houses  —  Furniture — Hos- 
pitality— Food — Clothing — Army  and  navy — Insignia — 
Biisto  de  Bolivar — The  Press. 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE   ABORIGINES        .  .  .  .  .  .     II9 

The  Goajiros — Lake  dwellings — Appearance — Territory 
— Villages — Government — Burial  customs  —  Religion — 
Medicine-men — The  Caribs — A  iine  race — Cannibalism — 
Headless  men  of  the  Caura — The  Amazons— Industries — 
Religion — Marriage  customs — The  aborigines  of  Guayana 
— Tavera-Acosta  on  languages — The  Warraus — Appear- 
ance— Houses — Food  —  Clothing  —  Marriage  customs — 
Birth — Death — Religion — Treatment  of  sick — The  Bani- 
bas — Appearance — Customs — Religion  —  Celebration  of 
puberty  of  girls — Marriage  customs — The  Arawaks — 
Religion — Early  missions  amongst  Indians — Wanted,  a 
twentieth-century  apostle. 

CHAPTER  VIII 
THE    STATES     OF     THE     "  CENTRO  "  :    DISTRITO    FEDERAL, 

MIRANDA,   ARAGUA,    AND   CARABOBO       .  .  .     I35 

La  Guaira — Heat — Port-works — The  Brighton  of  Vene- 
zuela— Sugar  plantations — Streets  and  botiquins — Guarapo 
— La  Guaira-Caracas  Railway — A  great  engineering  feat 
— Caracas — Climate — Population  —  Streets  —  Buildings — 
The  Salon  Eliptico  —  El  Calvario  —  El  Paraiso—"  La 
India" — Water  supply— Trams  and  telephones — Lighting 
— Industries — The  Guaire  valley — Coffee  —  Miranda — 
Ocumare  del  Tuy — Petare — Central  Railway — Vegetable 
snow — Carenero  Railway — Rio  Chico — LosTeques — Great 
Venezuelan  Railway — La  Victoria — Sixteen-fold  wheat- 
fields  —  Maracay  —  Grazing  lands  —  Cheese  —  President 
Gomez's  country  house — Villa  de  Cura — An  epitome  of 
the  State — Lake  of  Valencia — Cotton — Carabobo — Valen- 
cia— Cotton  mills — Montalban — Deserted  vineyards — 
Wild  rubber — Puerto  Cabello  Railway — The  port — Meat 
syndicate — Club — Ocumare  de  la  Costa — What  is  bad  for 
man  may  be  <iood  for  cocoa — Mineral  resources. 


CONTENTS  16 

CHAPTER   IX 

PAGE 

ZULIA  .......     149 

The  Lake  of  Coquibacoa  in  the  sixteenth  century  and 
now — Wealth  and  importance  of  the  State — Area  and 
population  —  Waterways  —  Forests  —  Mineral  wealth  — 
Savannahs — Maracaibo — Harbour  and  dredging  schemes 
— Cojoro — Wharves  and  warehouses  of  Maracaibo — 
Exports — Population — German  colony — Buildings — In- 
dustries— Tramways—  Codies — Lake  steamers  —  Ancient 
craft — The  comedy  of  the  bar — Railways — Communica- 
tion with  Colombia — Altagracia — Santa  Rita — A  western 
Gibraltar — An  eventful  history — San  Carlos  de  Zulia — 
Sinamaica — Vegetable  milk — Timber — Copaiba — Fish- 
eries— The  "  Maracaibo  Lights." 

CHAPTER  X 

THE    ANDINE    STATES  :    TACHIRA,    MERIDA,   AND    TRUJILLO     157 

Access — Roads  versus  railways — Mineral  wealth — "  Mara- 
caibo "  coffee — Forests — San  Cristobal — Water  supply — 
Industries — Roads — Rubio — Tachira  Petroleum  Company 
— San  Antonio — Lobatera — Colon — Interrupted  communi- 
cations— Fregonero — El  Cobre — Old  mines — La  Grita — 
Seboruco  copper — Merida — The  Bishop  and  the  Bible — 
Eternal  snows  —  Earthquakes — Electric  light — Road 
schemes — Gold  and  silver — Lagunillas — Urao — Wayside 
hospitality — Puente  Real — Primitive  modes  of  transport 
— Las  Laderas — The  Mucuties  valley — Tovar — Mucuchies 
— The  highest  town  in  Venezuela — The  paramos — Ti- 
motes — Trujillo — Valera — Water  supply — La  Ceiba  Rail- 
way— Betijoque  and  Escuque — Bocono — Santa  Ana — 
Carache — Unknown  regions — Possibilities  of  the  Andes. 

CHAPTER  XI 

LARA,  YARACUY,  AND  FALCON     ....  I71 

The  original  Venezuela — Ancient  cities — Communications 
—  Barquisimeto  —  Fortified  stores  —  Productions  —  The 
Bolivar  Railway — Duaca — Aroa  copper-mines — A  pre- 
carious house-site — In  the  mine— Bats  and  cockroaches 
El  Purgatorio — Blue  and  green  stalactites — San  Felipe 
— The  Yaracuy  valley — Nirgua — Yaritagua — Tocuyo —  - 
The     "  coach  "     to     Barquisimeto  —  Quibor  —  Mmas  — 


16  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Carora — An  ill-advised  scheme — Siquisique — Steamboats 
on  the  Tocuyo — San  Luis — Coro — The  first  cathedral  of 
South  America — Goat-farms — Fibre — La  Vela — Capa- 
tarida  tobacco — Curagao — A  fragment  of  Holland — A 
mixed  language — Trade — Sanitation — The  islands. 


CHAPTER  Xn 

IN    THE    "  ORIENTE."      NUEVA    ESPARTA,    SUCRE,    PART    OF 

MONAGAS,   AND   THE   DELTA    TERRITORY  .  .     l8l 

Restricted  use  of  term  "  Oriente  " — Margarita — Asuncion 
— Porlamar  and  Pampatar — Macanao — A  primitive  popu- 
lation— The  priests,  the  comet,  and  the  people — Culaagua 
— Pearl  fisheries — Cochc — Cumana — Las  Casas — A  diving 
feat — Petroleum  and  salt — Fruit — The  Manzanares — 
Cumanacoa — In  the  hills — San  Antonio  and  its  church — 
The  Guacharo  cave — Humboldt  —  Virgin  territory — 
Puncercs — Oil-springs — The  Bermudez  asphalt  lake — 
Carupano — Ron  bianco — Sulphur  and  -gold — Rio  Caribe 
— Peninsula  of  Paria — Cristobal  Colon — An  ambitious  pro- 
ject—The  Delta— The  Golfo  Tns/c—Pedernales— Asphalt 
and  outlaws — In  the  cafios — Tucupita — Barrancas — Ima- 
taca  iron-mines  —  Canadian  capital  for  Venezuela — 
Guayana  Vieja. 

CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  LLANOS.      MONAGAS,    ANZOATEGUI,   GUARICO,   COJEDES, 

PORTUGUESA,   ZAMORA,    AND   APURE       .  .  .     I93 

The  great  plains — An  ocean  without  water — " Bancos" 
and  mesas — Drought  and  flood — A  living  floor — Streams 
which  flow  upwards — Heat — Cattle  and  horses — Imported 
butter — Methods  of  milking — Civil  wars — Future  pros- 
pects— A  mean  annual  temperature  of  90°  F. — Barcelona 
— History — The  massacre  of  the  Casa  Fuerte — Survivors 
— Guanta — Coal  of  Naricual — Aragua  de  Barcelona — 
Maturin — Low  death  rate — Caiio  Colorado — Bongos — 
Athletic  boatmen— CaszVas — Travelling  on  the  Llanos — 
An  liato — Areo — An  ancient  cotton  press — The  men  of 
Urica — Churches  and  wayside  shrines — A  gruesome 
monument — Calabozo — Barbacoas — Ortiz — Zaraza  and 
Camaguan — San  Carlos— Barinas — Guanarc— Past  pros- 
perity and  future  prospects. 


CONTENTS  17 


CHAPTER   XIV 

PACE 

THE   CITY   AND   STATE   OF   BOLIVAR  .  .  .211 

An  enormous  area — How  to  reach  it — Ciudad  Bolivar — 
Climate — San  Felix — Falls  of  the  Caroni— Trade  of  San 
Felix — Quality  of  "roads" — Upata — Guasipati — Balata 
industry — Extravagant  exploitation — Former  importance 
—The  goldfields— El  Callao— The  discovery— Callao  Bis 
— Big  dividends — The  common  pursuit — Venamo  valley 
High  freights — Poor  quality  of  labour — Unsystematic 
working— Goldfields  of  Venezuela,  Ltd. — Savannahs— 
Stock-farming  —  Sugar  —  Old  settlements  —  An  ancient 
bridge — Tumeremo  and  the  balata  forests — Killing  the 
goose  that  lays  the  golden  eggs — The  Caroni — An  oppor- 
tunity for  a  pioneer — Up  the  Orinoco — The  "  Gates  of 
Hell" — The  Caura — Rice  and  tonka-beans — " Lajas" — 
Rubber  of  the  Nichare — Falls  of  Para — Andre's  journeys 
— Mountains  of  the  upper  Caura — The  Waiomgomos — 
Reticence  regarding  names  —  Ticks  —  Caicara  —  The 
Cuchivero — Savannahs  and  "  Sarrapiales  " — Sarsaparilla 
— Climate  of  the  Orinoco  valley. 


CHAPTER   XV 

THE   AMAZONAS   TERRITORY  ....     223 

Area — General  character — San  Fernando  de  Atabapo — 
The  upper  Orinoco — Communication  with  outside  world 
— Aturcs  and  Maipures  rapids — Humboldt's  description 
— The  Compania  Anonima  de  Navegacion  Fluvial  y 
Costanera — General  Chalbaud— Railway  projects — The 
Piaroas  —  Curare  —  Savannahs —  Rubber  —  Brazil-nuts — 
Wild  cocoa  —  Mineral  wealth  —  Water  power — Rubber 
prospectors — Method  of  working — Esmeralda— The  place 
of  flies — Mt.  Duida — Gold  possibilities — The  Raudal  de 
los  Guaharibos — The  limit  of  exploration— The  Ventuari 
— An  old  Spanish  road — A  midnight  massacre — Stock- 
raising  lands— The  Maquiritare — Trading  with  gold  dust 
— The  Casiquiare  bifurcation — Life  of  the  natives — Eau 
de  Cologne  in  the  wilds — The  Guainia  and  Rio  Negro — 
Maroa — Cucuhy— The  Atabapo — Lack  of  population — 
Education — Colonisation — General  prospects. 


18  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   XVI 

PAGE 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  VENEZUELA      .       .       .  235 

Commerce— Early  history — Pearls  and  gold— The  Guipuz- 
coana  Company — The  republic — Years  of  struggle — 
Separation  from  Colombia — Guzman  Blanco — British, 
American,  and  German  trade— Opportunities — Currency 
— Banking — Banco  de  Venezuela— Banco  Caracas — 
Banco  de  Maracaibo— National  Debt — Natural  resources 
—Large  returns  on  capital — Coal — Iron— Salt — Asphalt 
and  petroleum — Sulphur — Copper — Gold — The  Llanos — 
Stock-raising — Possibilities  of  the  industry — The  Vene- 
zuelan Meat  Products  Syndicate— Agriculture — Coffee — 
Cocoa  —  Sugar  —  Tobacco  —  Cotton  —  Rubber  —  Tonka- 
beans,  balata,  sernambi  and  copaiba — Fisheries — Pearls 
—  Industries  —  Chocolate  —  Cotton-mills  —  Tanning  — 
Matches,  glass,  and  paper — Cigarettes  and  beer — Arts 
and  sciences  —  Academy  of  History — Universities  — 
Surveys. 

CHAPTER   XVII 

COMMUNICATIONS   AND   TRANSPORT  .  .  .     252 

Lack  of  adequate  means — Postal  service — A  small  but 
growing  system — Methods  of  carriage — Unusual  uses  of 
mailbags  —  Telegraphs— Telephones— Railways — Bolivar 
Railway  —  Later  lines  —  Tramways  —  Abundant  water- 
power  —  "  Roads  " — Cfl?rd/eras— Bridle-paths — P.W.D.  — 
Waterways — Less  than  they  seem— Importance — The 
Orinoco — Ports — Shipping — Steamship  lines. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE    FUTURE    OF   VENEZUELA  ....     261 

A  great  opportunity — The  Panama  Canal — Th^  .Llanos — 
Petroleum-fields — Liquid  fuel — Position  of  Venezuela 
— Guayana —  Possibilities — Colonisation — Government — 
The  military-political  class — The  disgrace  of  labour  — 
Better  conditions — Vargas — The  "  Matos  "  revolution — 
General  Gomez — Hopes  to  be  realised — Honesty  and 
justice — Development — Roads — Railways —  Education  — 
Consular  service — Great  Britain's  trade  with  Venezuela — 
A  poor  third — British  capital — The  people's  responsibility 
— An  opportunitv. 


CONTENTS  19 


APPENDICES 

PAGE 

APPENDIX   A  ......     269 

Population  of  States  and  districts  under  the  Constitution 
of  1909  according  to  the  census  of  1891 


APPENDIX   B  ......     274 

Imports  (by  classes) — Imports  (by  countries) — Exports 
(by  products) — Imports  (classes  and  countries) — Exports 
(by  products  and  ports) 

APPENDIX   C  ......     281 

Population,  altitude,  mean  annual  temperature  and 
death  rate  of  principal  Venezuelan  cities — Heights  of 
principal  mountains 

APPENDIX    D  ......     283 

Government  finance — Revenue — Expenditure 

APPENDIX    E  ......     285 

The  National  Debt  of  Venezuela — Internal  debt — 
Foreign  debt 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  ......     287 

General  Works — Geographical — Geological — Botanical 
and  Zoological — Historical— Ethnological — Caracas  and 
the  "  Centro  "— Zulia— The  Andes,  Falcon,  &c.— The 
"  Oriente  "—The  Llanos— Bolivar  City  and  State— The 
Territorio  Amazonas — Resources,  commercial  develop- 
ment, communications,  &c. 


INDEX  .......     314 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

CATHEDRAL  :  CARACAS  ....  Frontispiece 


FACIXO   PAGE 

PENINSULA   OF   PARIA    FROM    TRINIDAD  ...  28 


IN   THE    DELTA             .                 .                 .                 .                 .  .28 

PANORAMA  OF  THE  ANDES   FROM    NORTH    OF   CARACHE  .  36 

IN   THE    UPPER   TEMPERATE   ZONE  :    THE    CHAMA   VALLEY  .      50 

CLOUD    DRIFTS    IN   THE   ANDES             .                 .                 .  -58 

TORBES   VALLEY   AND   THE   COLOMBIAN    HILLS    .                 .  58 

THE   CHAMA   VALLEY   ABOVE   MERIDA               .                 .  .68 

MOUNTAIN   STREAM    NEAR   CUMANACOA   AND   CUMANA      .  68 

BARQUISIMETO              .                 .                 .                 .                 .  -78 

STATUE   IN    PLAZA   BOLIVAR  :    CARACAS    ...  88 

THE    UNIVERSITY  ;   CARACAS  .                 .                 .                 .  ,98 


THE    FEDERAL    PALACE  :    CARACAS  .  .  .  I08 

21 


22  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING   PAGE 

AN   ANDINE    POSADA:    LA    KAYA  .  .  .  .    Il6 

OVEN  :    LA   RAYA  ......  Il6 

LA   GUAIRA    HARBOUR  .....    I28 

PLAZA    BOLIVAR  :    VALENCIA  ....  I38 

MARACAIBO    BAY  ......    I48 

SAN   TIMOTEO  :    LAKE   OF   MARACAIBO       .  .  .  I48 

A   STREET   IN    LA   GRITA  .....    158 

PUENTE    REAL  :    GORGE   OF   THE    CHAMA  ,  .  I58 

THE   SIERRA    NEVADA   AND   CATHEDRAL   OF    MERIDA  .    168 

WILLEMSTAD  :    CURA9AO  ....  178 

THE    HARBOUR  :    WILLEMSTAD  ....    178 

PUERTO  CRISTOBAL   COLON  .  .  .  .  188 

RUINED   CHURCH  :    BARCELONA  ....    198 

CASA   FUERTE  :    BARCELONA  ....  I98 

MERIDA  :    LOOKING   SOUTH    FROM    UNIVERSITY  .  .   2o8 

MESA   OF   ESNOJAQUE  :   TRUJILLO  .  .  .  208 

CARRYING   TILES   ON    OX-BACK  :    NEAR   TOVAR  .  .    2l8 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  23 

FACING  PAGE 

CROSSING   THE   TORBES    IN    FLOOD  .  .  .  228 


THE    "  PITCH  "    LAKE  :   TRINIDAD         ....    244 
COUNTRY   COACH  :    BARQUISIMETO  .  .  .  256 

ON   THE   BOLIVAR    RAILWAY  .....    356 


The  frontispiece  and  the  illustrations  facing  pages  78,  88, 
98,  108,  128,  138  are  taken  from  "Venezuela,"  by  N.  Veloz- 
Goiticoa,  by  permission  of  the  Bureau  of  South  American 
Republics,  Washington,  U.S.A. 


VENEZUELA 


CHARTER    I 

PHYSICAL   DESCRIPTION   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES 
OF   VENEZUELA 

Situation  —  Area  —  Population  —  Main  physical  divisions  —  The 
Guayana  Highlands  —  Mountains,  rivers,  and  forests  —  The 
Llanos — Selvas — Mesas — Rivers  and  cienagas — The  Delta — 
Canos — The  Caribbean  Hills  —  Serrania  Costanera  —  Serrania 
Interior — Rivers — Segovia  Highlands — Drainage — Vegetation — 
The  Andes — Portuguese  chain— Cordillera  of  Merida — The 
Sierra  Nevada — Mountain  torrents — Vegetation — Paramos— The. 
Coastal  Plain — Lake  of  Maracaibo — Coro  and  Paraguana  Low- 
lands— Climate — "  White-water  "  and  "  black-water  "  rivers — 
Seasons — Tierra  caliente,  templada,  and  fria — Temperature  and 
seasons — "St.  John's  little  summer" — Health. 

If  we  take  a  map  of  South  America  on  which  the 
political  boundaries  are  clearly  shown,  Venezuela  will 
be  observed  as  a  wedge  of  territory  immediately  to 
the  east  of  the  most  northerly  point  of  the  continent, 
separating  Colombia  from  our  colony  of  British 
Guiana. 

The  United  States  of  Venezuela,  as  this  republic 
is  officially  called,  lie  wholly  within  the  tropical  zone, 
between  latitude  o°  45'  N.  and  12°  26'  N.  and  longi- 
tude 59°  35'  W.  and  73°  20'  W.  (from  Greenwich). 
The  area  within  these  limits  is  some  1,020,400  square 
kilometres,  or  394,000  square  miles,  according  to  the 
Statistical  Year  Book  for  1908,  published  in  Caracas 


.516;    :  ...  •••.  VENEZUELA 

in  1 910.  The  total  population,  according  to  the 
same  authority,  is  2,664,241,  these  being  the  figures 
of  the  last  census,  that  of  1891. 

Turning  to  our  map  once  more,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  wedge  is  not  a  regular  one,  but  suggests  rather 
the  lower  half  of  a  human  head,  with  the  Lower 
Orinoco  as  the  line  of  the  jaw.  The  features  are 
easily  observed  to  separate  the  territory  of  the 
republic  into  four  main  divisions  :  (i)  the  Guayana 
Highlands,  including  all  the  region  corresponding  to 
the  part  of  the  head  below  the  jaw-line,  i.e.,  south 
and  east  of  the  Orinoco  ;  (2)  the  great  central  area 
of  plains  or  Llanos,  bounded  on  the  north  and  west 
by  (3)  the  north-eastern  branch  of  the  great  Andine 
chain,  and  in  the  north-west  of  the  country  (4)  a 
smaller  low-lying  region  round  the  Lake  of  Mara- 
caibo.  Each  of  these  divisions  includes  somewhat 
varying  types  of  land  surface,  but  has  its  main 
features  of  uniform  character. 

As  already  defined,  the  Guayana  Highlands 
include  the  whole  of  that  vast,  more  or  less 
unexplored,  tract  of  Venezuela  lying  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Orinoco  and  round  the  head-waters  of 
that  river.  The  area  is  primarily  one  huge  elevated 
plateau  about  1,000  feet  or  more  above  the  sea,  and 
from  this  rise  a  few  principal  mountain  ranges,  with 
some  peaks  over  8,000  feet  high,  while  smaller  hills 
and  chains  link  up  the  larger  systems.  The  highest 
ground  is  found  on  the  Brazilian  frontier,  beginning 
at  Mount  Roraima  (8,500  feet),  where  the  three 
boundaries  of  Venezuela,  British  Guiana,  and  Brazil 
meet,  and  extends  thence  in  the  Sierras  Pacaraima 
and  Parima  westward  and  southward  to  the  head- 
waters of  the  Orinoco.  From  Roraima  the  Orinoco- 
Cuyuni  watershed  extends  northward  within 
Venezuela,  along  the  Sierras  Rincote  and  Usu- 
pamo  and  the  Highlands  of  Puedpa,  to  the 
Sierra     Piacoa,     and    thence     south-east     along    the 


PHYSICAL    DESCRIPTION  27 

Sierra  Imataca  to  the  British  limits  again.  The 
Sierra  Maigualida  forms  the  watershed  between  the 
Caura  and  the  Ventuari. 

The  whole  area,  which  amounts  to  some  204,600 
square  miles,  is  well  watered  by  the  upper  Orinoco 
and  the  Ventuari,  with  the  other  great  tributaries, 
the  Cuchivero,  Caura,  Aro,  Caroni,  and  their  affluents. 
Large  as  these  rivers  are,  they  are  so  broken  by 
rapids  that  travel  along  them  is  only  possible  for 
much  of  their  length  in  small  portable  craft,  and 
even  then  the  passage  is  fraught  with  danger.  Save 
for  the  districts  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of 
the  Orinoco,  and  scattered  areas  elsewhere,  the  whole 
region  is  thickly  covered  with  forests  of  valuable 
timber,  containing  rubber,  tonka-beans,  brazil-nuts, 
copaiba,  and  all  the  varied  natural  produce  of  the 
South  American  tropics. 

The  great  plains  or  Llanos  of  the  Orinoco  extend 
from  the  banks  of  the  Meta  in  a  broad  arc  parallel 
to  the  course  of  the  Orinoco  along  its  left  bank. 
Westward  they  are  bounded  by  the  Cordillera  of 
Merida,  and  northward  by  the  Cordillera  of  Caracas 
and  the  hills  of  Sucre,  but  between  these  ranges,  at 
Barcelona,  they  virtually  reach  the  sea  for  a  short 
distance.  To  the  east  they  merge  into  the  low- 
lying  tract  of  the  Orinoco  Delta.  The  total  area 
of  the  Llanos  proper  is  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
108,300  square  miles,  so  that  we  have  in  these  two 
thinly  populated  tracts  about  80  per  cent,  of  the 
territory  of  the  republic. 

Vast  areas  of  the  Llanos  remain,  for  all  practical 
purposes,  still  unexplored,  and  their  general  character 
can  only  be  inferred  from  that  of  the  regions  border- 
ing on  the  "  roads."  The  typical  areas  are  wide 
grass  plains,  often  stretching  to  the  horizon  on  all 
sides  without  a  break,  but  generally  interrupted  by 
little  groups  of  palms  and  small  trees,  especially  near 
the  banks  of  the  rivers.     At  some  four  or  five  points 


28  VENEZUELA 

near  the  northern  edge  there  are  great  forests  or 
selvas,  reHcs  possibly  of  an  earHer,  more  extensive 
woodland. 

The  elevation  of  the  Llanos  ranges  up  to  650  feet, 
and  more  than  this  in  the  mesas  of  the  central  region, 
these  being  gravel-capped  plateaux,  of  varying  extent, 
beginning  in  the  west  with  the  Mesa  de  Santa  Clara, 
northward  of  Caicara,  and  extending  thence  in  a 
continuous  series  eastward  and  northward  to  form 
the  watershed  between  the  Orinoco  and  the  Unare- 
Aragua  basin,  which  drains  into  the  Caribbean  Sea 
west  of  Barcelona.  The  lowest  part  of  the  Llanos 
is  situated  westward  of  this  chain  of  tablelands,  in 
the  valley  of  the  Portuguesa,  the  lower  part  of  which 
has  large  tracts  less  than  300  feet  above  sea-level. 
East  of  the  Mesa  de  Guanipa  the  ground  falls  com- 
paratively rapidly  to  the  Delta. 

While  severe  drought  is  experienced  over  much  of 
the  Llano  region  in  summer,  the  heavy  rains,  par- 
ticularly in  the  western  districts,  produce  floods  over 
the  low-lying  plains,  the  mesas  being  dry  at  all  times. 
The  whole  area  is  traversed  by  numerous  streams 
and  rivers,  which  rise  either  on  the  southern  slopes 
of  the  Cordillera  or  in  the  mesas.  North  of  the  Meta, 
in  addition  to  the  large  number  of  smaller  streams 
which  here  and  there  broaden  out  into  marshy  Lakes  or 
cienagas,  we  have  the  navigable  rivers  Arauca  (the 
main  waterway  to  eastern  Colombia)  and  Apure,  flow- 
ing from  the  Andes  to  the  Orinoco  in  an  easterly 
direction.  The  Apure  receives  many  tributaries  on 
its  left  bank  from  the  Venezuelan  Andes,  most  im- 
portant of  which  are  the  PxDrtuguesa,  rising  in  the 
plains  of  the  same  name  south  of  Barquisimeto  and 
joining  the  Apure  at  San  Fernando,  and  the  Guarico, 
whose  mouth  is  east  of  the  same  town,  flowing  from 
south  of  Caracas  through  the  State  to  which  it  gives 
its  name,  and  receiving  from  the  east  the  waters  of 
the  Orituco,   whose  source  is  less   than  thirty  miles 


'EMNSUIA    OF    PARIA    FROM    TRINKJAI). 


IN    THE    DKI.TA. 


PHYSICAL    DESCRIPTION  29 

from  the  coast  in  longitude  66°.  Of  the  Orinoco 
tributaries  from  the  north  beyond  the  Apure  the  most 
important  is  the  Manapire,  all  the  streams  east  of 
this  rising  in  the  mesas  and  having  but  short  courses. 
The  greater  part  of  the  eastern  Llanos  drains  north- 
ward by  the  Unare  and  Aragua  into  the  Caribbean 
Sea.  A  few  large  rivers  rise  on  the  east  of  the  mesas, 
but  flow  for  short  distances  only  through  the  plains, 
emptying,  not  into  the  Orinoco  itself  but  the  cartas 
of  the  Delta.  This  last-mentioned  region  of  inun- 
dated forest,  savannah  and  mangrove  swamp  occupies 
about  11,500  square  miles,  bringing  the  total  area 
of  the  central  plains  up  to    119,800  square  miles. 

The  third  great  tract,  the  north-eastern  spur  of 
the  Andes,  divides  itself  naturally  into  three  parts — 
the  Caribbean  Hills,  along  the  shores  of  the  sea 
of  the  same  name  ;  the  Segovia  Highlands,  linking 
the  former  to  the  higher  mountains  of  western 
Venezuela  ;  and  the  Cordillera  of  Merida,  or  the 
Venezuelan  Andes.  The  total  area  occupied  by  these 
mountain  and  hill  tracts  is  about  41,800  square  miles. 

The  Caribbean  Hills  give  to  the  Venezuelan  coast 
its  splendid  and  almost  unique  aspect,  for,  save  for 
the  interruption  near  Barcelona,  the  range  extends 
without  much  decrease  in  average  height  from  west 
of  longitude  68°  to  the  east  end  of  the  peninsula 
of  Paria,  less  than  62°  west  of  Greenwich.  Two 
main  lines  of  elevation  are  plainly  discernible  in  the 
Caracas  region,  known  as  the  Serrania  Costanera 
and  the  Serrania  Interior  ;  they  continue  throughout 
the  range,  but  are  less  distinct  in  the  Cumana  Hills. 
The  greatest  elevation  of  the  outer  line  is  reached 
near  Caracas  itself,  a  considerable  area  west  of  the 
city  rising  to  over  6,500  feet,  while  to  the  east  are 
the  famous  peaks  of  La  Silla  (de  Caracas)  and 
Naiguata  (8,620  feet  and  9,100  feet  respectively). 
In  the  inner  range  the  greatest  elevation  is  round 
Mount   Turimquiri,    south   of   Cumana  ;     the   eastern 


30  VENEZUELA 

portion  of  the  coast  range,  in  the  peninsulas  of  Araya 
and  Paria,  does  not  rise  above  3,200  feet.  On  the 
northern  side  the  complex  is  drained  only  by  moun- 
tain torrents  falling  rapidly  throughout  their  short 
courses  to  the  sea,  while  on  the  south  are  the  head- 
waters of  the  Orinoco  tributaries.  Between  the 
two  ranges,  however,  we  have  longitudinal  valleys 
with  rivers  of  more  or  less  importance — the  Aragua, 
flowing  westwards  from  Caracas  into  the  lake  of 
Valencia  or  Tacarigua,  which  overflows  into  the  Paito, 
a  tributary  of  the  Portuguesa  ;  and  the  Tuy,  with  its 
affluent  the  Guaire,  flowing  eastwards  to  the  sea  south 
of  Cape  Codera.  In  the  Cumana  Hills  we  have  the 
Manzanares  and  other  smaller  streams  emptying  their 
waters  into  the  Gulf  of  Cariaco,  and  on  the  east  the 
Lake  of  Putucual,  though  small,  is  similar  in  situation 
to  that  of  Valencia,  and  its  overflow  forms  the 
River  San  Juan,  which  empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Paria, ; 
forming  virtually  part  of  the  Orinoco  drainage.  The' 
lower  slopes  of  all  these  ranges,  and  the  valleys, 
are  clothed  with  rich  forests,  excepting  the  dry, 
barren  coasts  near  Caracas,  while  the  heights  are 
bare,  save  for  grass  and  a  few  small  temperate  trees. 

Between  the  western  extremity  of  the  Caribbean 
Hills  and  the  northern  spurs  of  the  Venezuelan  Andes 
there  is  an  elevated  region,  which,  though  subject 
to  variations  of  level,  possesses  the  main  features  of 
a  tableland,  and  this  type  of  surface  extends  in  a 
broad  belt  northward  through  the  States  of  Lara 
and  Falcon.  Their  main  extent  is  in  the  State  of 
Lara,  whose  capital,  Barquisimeto,  had  as  its  original 
name,  before  any  territorial  limits  were  defined  round 
it,  Nueva  Segovia  ;  it  seems  appropriate,  therefore, 
to  distinguish  this  area  as  the  Segovia  Highlands. 

The  level  of  most  of  the  area  so  designated 
ranges  from  1,500  to  3,500  feet,  but  the  plateau 
type  is  best  developed  in  the  Barquisimeto  region, 
the   dry,    barren   plains    of   which,    with   their   cactus 


PHYSICAL    DESCRIPTION  31 

vegetation,  suggest  by  their  general  features  the  dry 
bed  of  an  ancient  lake,  in  whose  waters  the  small 
scattered  hills  formed  islands,  while  the  Andine 
spurs  to  the  south  and  the  Sierra  de  Aroa  and 
similar  mountain  masses  north  of  Barquisimeto,  con- 
stituted its  limits.  Beyond  the  latter,  and  north  of 
the  Tocuyo  River,  while  the  larger  part  of  the  area 
maintains  its  more  or  less  uniform  elevation,  three 
well-defined  ranges  rise  from  the  plateau,  in  the 
Cordilleras  of  Baragua,  Agua  Negra,  and  San  Luis  ; 
the  last  named  is  the  largest,  and  extends  for  1 1  o 
miles  parallel  to  the  Coro  coast,  overlooking  the 
Gulf  of  Venezuela.  Practically  the  whole  of  this 
region  is  drained  by  the  Tocuyo  and  its  tributaries, 
the  other  rivers  rising  merely  on  its  outer  edges 
and  falling  direct  to  the  sea  ;  from  this  generalisa- 
tion should  be  excepted  a  small  area  round  Bar- 
quisimeto, in  the  catchment  area  of  the  river  of  the 
same  name,  which  contributes  its  waters  to  the  volume 
of  the  Portuguesa,  and  so  enters  the  Orinoco.  The 
Tocuyo,  whose  principal  affluents  are  the  Carora  and 
the  Baragua  on  its  left  bank,  rises  in  the  Andes  and 
flows  for  some  330  miles  in  a  northerly  direction, 
changing  to  easterly  in  the  lower  river,  before  it 
empties  itself  into  the  Caribbean.  While  the  southern 
part  of  this  area  is  barren,  all  the  lower  slopes  of 
the  northern  hills  are  forest  clad  and  fertile,  with 
llanos  in  the  Carora  Valley  and  grass -covered 
summits  above. 

To  the  south  we  have  the  Venezuelan  Andes, 
stretching  for  some  300  miles  south-westward  to  the 
Colombian  frontier,  and  forming  the  highest  land  in 
the  whole  country. 

There  are  two  main  divisions  of  this  mountain 
group,  the  Portuguesa  chain  south  of  Barquisimeto, 
and  the  Cordillera  of  Merida  constituting  the  more 
important  and  higher  part.  The  Portuguesa  chain 
reaches    its  greatest   elevation    (13,100   feet)    in   the 


32  VENEZUELA 

south  near  the  sources  of  the  Tocuyo,  the  northern 
portion  rising  only  to  about  5,000  feet.  A  slight 
break  in  the  mass  is  caused  by  the  valley  of  the 
Bocono,  beyond  which  the  Cordillera  of  Merida 
begins  with  peaks  of  nearly  13,000  feet  on  the  north, 
rising  to  their  maximum  in  the  centre,  where  the 
summits  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  Merida  have  an 
elevation  of  about  16,400  feet,  and  the  top  of  the 
highest  of  all.  La  Columna,  is  16,423  feet  above 
sea-level.  Southwards  the  elevations  decrease  again, 
until  on  the  borders  of  Colombia  the  watershed 
is  less  than  5,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  streams 
of  this  chain,  with  its  steep  outer  flanks  so  charac- 
teristic of  the  Andes,  naturally  belong  for  the  most 
part  to  the  catchment  area  of  the  Orinoco  or  the 
Maracaibo  Lake,  but  there  is  a  succession  of  longi- 
tudinal valleys  within  the  chain  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  pertaining  more  particularly  to  the  Andes. 
The  chief  of  these  rivers  are  the  Motatdn,  which, 
rising  north  of  Merida,  flows  northwards  through 
Trujillo  to  the  Lake  of  Maracaibo  ;  the  Chama,  whose 
sources  are  in  the  same  snows  that  supply  the 
Motatan,  though  the  stream  flows  southward  past 
Merida,  bending  then  sharply  northward  to  reach  the 
south  shore  of  the  lake  opposite  the  mouth  of  the 
Motatan  ;  and  the  Torbes,  flowing  south-westward 
by  San  Cristobal,  and  turning  there  to  the  east  to 
fall  into  the  Uribante,  a  tributary  of  the  Apure. 
Every  type  of  vegetation  occurs  within  this  Andine 
tract,  varying  according  to  the  geology  of  the  ground 
and  its  elevation.  At  some  points  there  are  fertile 
valleys  with  tropical  flora,  others  with  temperate 
cereals  ;  sometimes  bare  mountain  slopes  and  hot 
gorges  supporting  only  cactus  and  acacia,  and  little 
of  these  ;  sometimes  grass-clad  slopes  and  summits, 
with  the  peculiar  heather-like  and  resinous  plants 
of  the  "  paramos,"  and,  lastly,  the  eternal  snows 
of   the   peaks   of   the   Sierra   Nevada. 


PHYSICAL    DESCRIPTION  33 

North  of  the  mountain  region  of  Venezuela  lies 
what  may  be  considered  as  the  coastal  plain,  in- 
cluding the  alluvial  area  of  the  Lake  of  Maracaibo, 
the  Coro  and  Paraguana  lowlands,  and  such  few 
tracts  of  flat  ground  as  may  be  found  along  the 
coast,  with  the  numerous  islands  in  the  Caribbean 
which  belong  to  Venezuela.  The  area  of  this  division 
may  be  estimated  as  about  27,800  square  miles. 
The  lake  has  many  points  of  similarity  to  the  Delta, 
both  in  hydrography  and  general  character.  The 
southern  part  has  innumerable  rivers  comparable  to 
the  cafios,  with  open  lagoons  and  swamps,  bordered 
by  dense  forests  more  or  less  inundated  in  the  rains. 
On  the  east  and  west  shores  to  the  north  there  are 
stretches  of  higher  ground  between  the  swamps,  and 
frequent  grass  plains  like  the  Llanos  ;  the  western 
side  is  bounded  by  the  Sierra  de  Perija,  forming 
the  frontier  of  Colombia.  Chief  of  the  rivers 
traversing  these  plains  are  the  Motatdn  and  Chama, 
already  mentioned  as  rising  in  the  Andes,  the 
Escalante,  and  the  Catatumbo  ;  the  mouths  of  all 
are  of  a  deltaic  character,  and  all  are  navigable  to 
a  greater  or  lesser  extent.  The  largest  and  most 
important  is  the  Catatumbo,  which,  with  its  great 
tributary,  the  Zulia,  rises  in  Colombia. 

The  Coro  and  Paraguana  lowlands  form  a  stretch 
of  open,  sandy,  more  or  less  barren  and  low  hills, 
extending  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the  port  of 
Maracaibo  along  the  coast  to  Coro,  and  into  the 
Paraguana  peninsula  ;  with  them  may  be  grouped  the 
islands,  which  are  similar  in  character,  except  Mar- 
garita, whose  mountains  resemble  those  of  the  Carib- 
bean chain,  though  the  open,  cactus -covered  lower 
ground  is  a  repetition  of  the  western  coast  (and 
Curagao). 

The  climate  of  the  39^^00^  square  miles  naturally 
varies   greatly  according  to   latitude,  elevation,   and 
vegetation.     The  Guavana  region,  here  also,  stands 
3 


34  VENEZUELA 

by  itself,  both  from  its  southern  position  and  com- 
paratively uniform  elevation,  so  that  over  a  wide  area 
the  temperature  and  rainfall  are  more  or  less  the 
same.  Naturally  in  those  parts  of  Guayana  where 
mountain  ridges  rise  above  the  general  level  of  the 
plateau  the  temperature  is  lower  than  the  average, 
but  these  must  constitute  a  small  part  of  the  whole. 
There  is  a  marked  difference  in  the  meteorological 
conditions  in  the  various  river-valleys  of  the  Orinoco 
basin,  where  the  "  white -water  " — i.e.,  the  swiftly  flow- 
ing but  muddy  streams,  with  rocky  beds — are  always 
accompanied  by  a  clear  sky  overhead,  and  mosquitoes 
and  crocodiles  abound  ;  on  the  "  black  water  " — the 
deep  and  slow  rivers — the  sky  is  continually  clouded, 
but  the  air  is  free  from  mosquitoes.  The  Orinoco 
represents  the  former  type,  the  Rio  Negro  the  latter. 
The  rainy  season  in  Guayana  begins  in  April  and 
lasts  till  November  ;  the  remaining  four  months  are 
fairly  dry. 

The  better  known  region  of  the  north  is  generally 
considered  as  divided,  qua  climate,  into  three  regions, 
in  common  with  tropical  South  America  generally — 
that  is  to  say,  the  hot,  temperate,  and  cold  zones. 
The  hot  zone  or  Tlerra  caliente  is  generally  con- 
sidered as  ranging  from  sea-level  to  an  elevation  of 
1,91  5  feet,  where  the  mean  annual  temperature  varies 
from  74°  to  91°  Fahr.  The  intermediate  or 
temperate  zone,  the  Tierra  templada,  lies  between 
1,915  and  7,030  feet  above  sea-level,  and  within 
those  limits  the  mean  annual  temperature  may  fall  as 
low  as,  or  even  lower  than,  60°  Fahr.  The  Tierra 
fria,  or  cold  zone,  including  the  highest  peak  of 
Venezuela,  16,423  feet,  has  mean  annual  tempera- 
tures ranging  from  60°  to  below  zero. 

The  Tierra  caliente  includes  (in  addition  to  the 
greater  part  of  Guayana)  the  Llanos,  the  coastal 
plains,  and  the  region  of  the  Lake  of  Maracaibo,  the 
lower  slopes  and  part  of  the  central  valleys  of  the 


PHYSICAL    DESCRIPTION  35 

mountains,  part  of  the  Segovia  Highlands,  and  the 
Caribbean  islands.  The  higher  ground  naturally  has 
a  climate  varying  with  elevation,  but  the  typical 
hot  country,  the  Llanos  are  the  warmest,  the  islands 
the  coolest.  On  the  Llanos  the  central,  northern, 
and  eastern  regions  are  cooler  than  the  southern  and 
western,  the  highest  mean  annual  temperature  being 
recorded  in  San  Fernando  de  Apure.  Over  this  area 
the  rainfall  is  heavy,  and  the  wet  season  lasts  from 
April  to  November.  Maracaibo  has  the  highest 
temperature  of  the  cities  of  the  coastal  region,  and, 
while  the  rains  in  the  greater  part  of  the  area  last 
through  the  same  month?  as  in  Guayana  and  the 
Llanos,  the  area  round  the  lake  is  comparatively  free 
from  rain  until  August  and  September,  when  the 
heaviest  falls  are  recorded.  The  Segovia  highlands 
and  the  islands  alike  have  a  lower  mean  temperature 
and  rainfall  than  the  remainder  of  the  zone,  the 
position  of  the  one  region,  behind  the  coastal  range 
which  has  precipitated  the  moisture  of  the  easterly 
winds,  being  paralleled  by  the  distance  of  the  islands 
from   these   heights   in   the   opposite   direction. 

The  Tierra  templada  includes  the  greater  part  of 
the  inhabited  region  of  the  hills,  in  which  the  climate 
necessarily  varies  greatly  according  to  situation,  the 
bottoms  of  some  of  the  Andine  valleys  within  the 
zone  being  more  oppressive  than  parts  of  the  low 
countries. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  Caribbean  Hills  the 
rains  last  during  the  same  months  as  in  the  Llanos, 
but  in  the  Andes,  particularly  to  the  south,  the 
seasons  vary,  and  it  is  generally  considered  that  there 
are  two  rainy  seasons  ;  the  first  light  rains  from' 
April  to  June,  separated  by  "St.  John's  little  summer  " 
{El  Veranito  de  San  Juan)  from  the  later  heavy  rains 
which  last  from  August  to  November  ;  this  arrange- 
ment applies  rather  to  the  eastern  side  of  the  water- 
shed, the  western  side  having  an  increasing  similarity 


36  VENEZUELA 

in  seasons  to  the  Llanos  as  one  descends  towards 
those  plains. 

Only  the  higher  peaks  and  ridges  of  the  Caribbean 
Hills  are  included  in  the  Tierra  fria,  but  between 
Tocuyo  and  the  Colombian  frontier  the  greater  part 
of  the  area  is  situated  above  7,030  feet.  The  pre- 
valent strong  winds  and  the  sparse  vegetation  of 
the  upper  areas  render  them  too  unattractive  to  have 
become  extensively  colonised,  but  the  products  of 
the  temperate  zone  grow  readily  in  the  lower  parts 
below  the  timber-limit.  Only  the  peaks  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  are  permanently  snow-covered,  the  line 
having,  it  is  said,  retreated  upwards  of  late  years. 
The  snow  is  apparently  more  abundant  in  the 
hotter  months  of  the  year,  when  the  clouds  which 
are  dropping  rain  on  the  plain  hide  the  peaks 
for  many  hours  of  the  day,  and  then,  lifting  suddenly, 
show  them  white  with  snow  far  below  the  normal 
point,  which  is  about  14,700  feet  above  sea-level. 
A  very  short  period  of  exposure  to  the  sun's  rays 
restores    the   mountains    to    their    usual    aspect. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  health,  Venezuela  must 
be  looked  upon  as  holding  a  good  record  for  a 
country  in  its  latitude,  where  malaria  is  to  be  ex- 
pected to  prevail.  The  death-rate  for  the  whole 
republic  in  1908  is  given  in  the  Anuario  Esta- 
distico  as  25"  i  per  1,000,  and  of  the  56,903  deaths 
in  that  year,  about  one-third  were  infants  under  four 
years  of  age,  while  malaria  (paludismo)  accounts  for 
8,239.  Tuberculosis  and  gastric  and  nervous  diseases 
are  the  most  prevalent  causes  of  death.  Yellow 
fever,  once  so  prevalent,  is  now  rare,  thanks  to  im- 
proved sanitary  conditions.  The  Delta  region  and 
the  lower  parts  of  the  Guayana  valley  are  the  most 
unhealthy  from  a  general  point  of  view,  while  the 
death-rate  of  the  cities  shows  that  the  Llanos  are 
by  far  the  healthiest  district,  with  the  Andes  next, 
followed  by  the  Caribbean   Hills.      In   some  of  the 


I 


''t 


^ 


PHYSICAL    DESCRIPTION  37 

low-lying  coast  towns,  where  mangrove  swamps 
abound  in  the  neighbourhood,  the  death-rate  is  high, 
but  as  a  general  rule  the  northern  coast,  with  its 
dry  atmosphere  and  sea  breezes,  while  hot,  appears 
to   be  markedly  healthy. 


CHAPTER    II 

THE   GEOLOGICAL    HISTORY   OF   VENEZUELA 

Ancient  land  of  Guayana — Comparison  with  Scottish  Highlands — 
Gneisses,  schists,  and  granite— Dykes — Roraima  Series — Strange 
peaks — The  Caribbean  Series — "  All  that  ghtters  is  not  gold  " — 
La  Galera — Segovia  Group — Natural  castles — Capacho  Lime- 
stone—  The  Golden  Hill  —  Cerro  de  Oro  Series  —  Formation 
of  mountains — Early  outlet  of  Orinoco — Cumana  Series — Shoals 
and  islands — Llano  gravels — Cubagua  beds — Igneous  rocks — 
Earthquakes — Hot  springs — A  natural  kettle — Coal — Iron — Gold 
— Copper — Lead  —  Petroleum  and  asphalt — Sulphur  —  Salt — 
Urao — Ornamental  stones — Wealth  in  minerals. 

A  CERTAIN  interest,  often  described  as  spurious  but 
none  the  less  common,  generally  attaches  to  the 
ancient  for  the  sake  of  its  antiquity,  and  we  may 
hope,  therefore,  that  the  story  of  the  rocks  of  Vene- 
zuela will  appeal  even  to  non-geological  readers. 

The  Guayana  Highlands  appear  not  only  to  be 
formed  of  the  oldest  rocks  in  Venezuela,  but  from 
such  scanty  study  as  has  been  made  of  parts  of  the 
region,  to  represent  one  of  the  most  ancient  land- 
surfaces  in  the  world.  Different  as  they  are  in 
appearance,  they  offer  many  analogies  with  the  north- 
western highlands  of  Scotland  from  a  geological  point 
of  view  ;  and  here  it  is  known  that  the  processes  of 
building-up  and  breaking-down  have  preserved  for 
us  glimpses  of  a  land  which  stood,  as  it  now  stands, 
long  ages  ago  when  living  organisms,  if  there  were 
any,  had  not  reached  such  a  stage  in  their  develop.- 

38 


GEOLOGICAL    HISTORY  39 

ment  as  to  leave  their  traces  in  the  deposits  of  the 
time. 

The  great  elevated  platform  from  which  rise  the 
peaks  and  mountain  chains  of  Guayana  appears 
everywhere  to  be  composed  of  similar  rocks,  gneisses, 
hornblende  schists,  and  granites,  all  containing  evi- 
dence of  great  antiquity  in  geological  time.  This 
Guayana  complex,  as  it  may  be  called,  has  been 
considered  by  geologists  as  more  or  less  equivalent 
in  age  to  the  Lewisian  gneiss  of  Scotland,  and  there- 
fore one  of  the  oldest  members  of  the  Archaean 
system. 

What  may  have  been  the  original  condition  of  the 
rocks  it  is  impossible  now  to  say,  but  one  of  the 
agencies  which  has  brought  them  to  their  present 
form  has  left  its  traces  in  the  form  of  "  dykes  "  of 
quartz -porphyries  and  felsite,  which  were  once  forced 
in  a  molten  condition  into  crevices  and  joints  of  the 
then  less  solid  deposits. 

After  the  cooling  of  these  intrusions  and  wearing 
down  of  the  whole  mass  by  atmospheric  influences, 
the  movements  of  the  earth's  crust  produced  a 
shallow  sea  or  series  of  lakes  over  what  is  now 
Guayana,  and  in  these  waters  a  series  of  beds  of 
red  and  white  sandstones,  coarse  conglomerate,  and 
red  shale  were  laid  down  to  a  thickness  of  about 
2,000  feet.  Later  the  area  was  again  elevated  into 
dry  land,  the  sediments  were  consolidated,  and  again 
veins  or  dykes  of  basalt,  dolerite,  and  similar  dark, 
heavy  rocks  in  a  molten  condition  forced  themselves 
into  the  fractures  of  gneisses  and  sandstones  alike. 
These  sandstones  are  here  named  the  Roraima  Series, 
from  their  occurrence  in  that  mountain,  and  they 
now  remain  as  isolated  peaks  or  chains  of  hills  all 
over  Guayana,  which,  since  that  far-off  period  when 
the  series  was  first  consolidated,  seems  to  have  been 
always  dry  land. 

The  points  at  which  the  Roraima  beds  have  been 


40  VENEZUELA 

left  as  upstanding  masses  of  horizontally  stratified 
material,  in  place  of  being  completely  denuded  from 
the  ancient  foundation  of  gneiss,  appear  to  have  been 
determined  in  many  cases  by  the  presence  of  ex- 
ceptional accumulations  of  molten  igneous  rock, 
which  has  hardened  and  remained  as  a  cap  to  protect 
the  softer  sandstones  below  from  the  effects  of  atmo- 
spheric weathering.  Where  this  has  been  the  case 
the  strange  vertical-sided,  flat-topped  mountains  of 
Guayana   are    the    result. 

While  in  all  probability  northern  Venezuela  has 
no  rocks  quite  so  ancient  as  those  of  Guayana,  the 
geological  history  of  this  part  of  the  country  has 
been  much  more  eventful,  and  the  number  of  earth- 
quakes suggest  that  even  yet  the  form  of  the  earth's 
crust  in  this  region  is  undergoing  comparatively 
violent  changes. 

As  is  commonly  the  case,  to  find  the  oldest  rocks 
we  have  to  search  the  hills,  and  because  the  masses 
of  gneiss,  silvery  mica-schist,  marble,  and  so  on, 
which  form  the  highest  parts  of  much  of  the  moun- 
tain region,  were  first  studied  by  Mr.  G.  P.  Wall 
in  the  Caribbean  Hills  in  i860,  he  named  the  whole 
the  Caribbean  Series.  The  beds  which  make  up 
the  series  may  have  been  deposited  at  a  period  cor- 
responding to  that  of  the  ancient  Silurian  rocks  of 
Wales,  but  it  seems  very  possible  that  they  are  older 
in  some  parts  than  in  others.  They  form  the  central 
region  of  the  Venezuelan  Andes,  where  there  is  a 
core  of  granite  which  probably  cooled  at  a  date 
subsequent  to  the  consolidation  of  the  gneiss  and 
schists.  The  silvery  mica-flakes  of  the  latter  are 
very  often  mistaken  by  the  inhabitants  for  gold  or 
silver  ores,  and  the  author  had  more  than  one  pretty 
but  valueless  specimen  offered  for  sale,  with  its 
locality  to  be  revealed  as  a  secret  of  great  worth  ! 
The  same  rocks  extend  all  the  way  along  the  coastal 
range  across  the  Boca  del  Draco  into  Trinidad,  and 


GEOLOGICAL    HISTORY  41 

northward  in  Margarita  the  mountains  are  formed 
of  similar  gneisses  and  schists.  In  the  Llanos  north 
of  El  Baul  there  is  a  peculiar  elevated  plateau  known 
as  La  Galera,  from  which  rise  many  hills  of  gneiss 
and  granitic  rock,  but  these  may  perhaps  be  an  out- 
lying island  of  the  Guayana  complex. 

After  the  deposits  of  the  Caribbean  Series  had 
been  consolidated  and  elevated  into  dry  land,  but 
before  they  had  been  thrown  into  high  mountains 
such  as  they  form  to-day,  perhaps  at  the  same  time 
that  the  granite  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  Merida  was 
being  pushed  up  under  them  in  a  molten  condition, 
the  seas  around  were  receiving  deposits  of  quartz 
sand,  mud,  and  lime,  which  were  later  consolidated 
to  form  a  series  of  red  and  yellow  sandstones,  shales, 
slates,  and  black  bituminous  limestones,  which  now 
outcrop  along  the  Sierras,  and  chiefly  in  the  Segovia 
Highlands,  suggesting  for  the  whole  the  name 
Segovia  Group.  The  animals  which  inhabited  the 
seas  of  those  times  left  their  shells  and  remains  in 
the  rocks,  and  the  forms  (Ammonites,  I  no  ce  ramus, 
&"c.)  which  have  been  found  by  various  travellers 
show  that  these  deposits  were  formed  at  a  period 
approximately  corresponding  to  that  of  the  lowest 
parts  of  our  chalk  or  of  the  Cretaceous  System 
generally. 

Here  and  there  throughout  the  mountains  of 
northern  Venezuela,  the  traveller  is  sure  to  be  struck 
by  the  sight  of  great  cliffs  and  castle-like  masses 
of  limestone  rock,  which  add  greatly  to  the  effect 
of  the  scenery  where  they  occur.  From  their  position 
it  is  clear  that  these  were  originally  parts  of  a  more 
or  less  continuous  accumulation  of  lime  in  a  deep, 
still  sea,  after  more  turbulent  waters  had  deposited 
the  Segovia  Group.  The  German  traveller  Dr. 
Sievers  called  this  limestone  the  Capacho  Limestone, 
from  Capacho  in  Tdchira.  The  fossils  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  period  of  the  higher  parts  of  the  chalk. 


42  VENEZUELA 

After  the  deposition  of  the  Capacho  Limestone 
the  earth's  crust,  which  had  in  this  region  remained 
tranquil  for  a  considerable  period,  again  underwent 
some  changes,  and  in  the  new  shallower  sea  thus 
formed  sand  and  mud,  with  some  lime,  were  alter- 
nately laid  down.  The  resulting  sandstones,  shales, 
and  limestones  were  named  by  Dr.  Sievers  the  Cerro 
de  Oro  Series,  from  a  hill  formed  of  these  rocks 
in  Tachira,  and  called  Cerro  de  Oro,  or  Golden 
Hill,  because  the  very  abundant  iron  pyrites  in 
it  were  mistaken  for  the  precious  metal.  Many 
fossils  have  been  found  in  the  group,  and  from 
these  it  seems  that  in  Venezuela,  instead  of  the  break 
between  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  which  we  have  in 
England,  there  was  a  continuous  series  of  deposits, 
so  that  at  the  base  we  have  chalk  fossils,  and  higher 
up  Eocene  forms,  the  general  character  of  the  animal 
life  changing  gradually  from  one  to  the  other. 

With  the  consolidation  of  the  Cerro  de  Oro  beds 
we  have  a  new  period  of  disturbance,  in  which  the 
mountain  chains  of  northern  Venezuela  began  to  be 
formed  as  we  know  them  to-day,  and  the  waters  of 
the  Orinoco  began  to  flow  into  the  Atlantic  more  or 
less  by  the  present  mouth  of  the  river.  Alongside 
the  newly  formed  hills,  or  islands  as  they  would  then 
be,  sandstones  and  shales  were  deposited  to  a  con- 
siderable thickness.  They  are  found  outcropping  now 
along  the  coast  and  under  the  Llanos,  as  well  as 
round  the  Lake  of  Maracaibo.  The  first  fossils  from 
them  were  collected  by  Mr.  G.  P.  Wall  from  Cumana, 
and  it  seems  fitting  to  distinguish  the  whole  as  the 
Cumand   Series. 

After  the  deposition  of  the  Cumana  Series,  and 
the  crust  movements  which  led  to  the  consolidation 
and  folding  of  these  rocks,  the  physical  features  of 
Venezuela  must  have  been  very  much  what  they  are 
to-day,  save  that  many  of  the  smaller  islands  and 
parts   of  the   coast   were  still    submerged  as   shoals, 


GEOLOGICAL    HISTORY  43 

whilst  the  Llanos  seem  to  have  been  a  great  swampy 
or  submerged  plain,  with  deep  water  in  parts,  over 
which  the  Orinoco  sediments  gradually  accumulated 
in  the  form  of  current-bedded  sands  and  clays  sur- 
mounted by  gravels,  which  we  may  term  the  Llano 
deposits.  At  the  same  time,  along  the  coast  and  on 
the  shoals  shell-beds  were  being  formed,  and  can 
now  be  seen  at  Cabo  Blanco,  west  of  La  Guaira, 
and  similar  places,  while  practically  the  whole 
surface  of  the  Island  of  Cubagua  is  formed  of  them, 
suggesting  the  name  Cubagua  Beds.  About  this 
period  some  volcanic  rocks  were  thrust  up  and  cooled 
both  in  the  Peninsula  of  Paraguana  and  near  San 
Casimiro,  south  of  Caracas.  In  the  mountains  great 
masses  of  gravels  containing  huge  boulders  and  some 
Megatherium  and  other  bones  were  being  piled  up  by 
the  rivers.  Last  of  all  we  have  the  still-accumulating 
recent  alluvium  of  the  modern  streams,  attaining  its 
widest  extent  in  the  Delta  and  round  the  Lake  of 
Maracaibo. 

No  volcanoes,  active  or  recently  extinct,  are  known 
in  Venezuela,  but  the  country  has,  like  most  of  South 
America,  been  continually  subject  to  earthquake 
shocks  of  greater  or  less  intensity.  Some  of  these 
are  historic,  but  of  the  many  others  recorded  not 
a  few  had  far-reaching  effects  on  the  population. 
The  first  important  tremor  noticed  after  the  dis- 
covery and  settlement  of  the  shores  of  the  Caribbean 
was  that  of  1530,  which  shook  the  city  of  Nueva 
Cadiz  on  the  Island  of  Cubagua  and  destroyed  the 
fortress  of  Cumana,  thus  checking  for  some  time 
the  colonisation  of  the  mainland  in  this  region. 
Thirteen  years  later  New  Cadiz  was  visited  again 
by  earthquake  and  hurricane,  and  so  disastrous  were 
the  results  that  from  that  day  to  the  present  Cubagua 
has  been,  what  it  was  before  the  arrival  of  the 
Spaniards,  a  desert  island.  The  many  shocks  experi- 
enced in  the  course  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 


44  VENEZUELA 

centuries  seem  to  have  been  generally  unaccompanied 
by  much  loss  of  life  or  property,  but  this  period 
of  comparative  quiescence  was  followed  by  one  of 
the  historical  examples  of  severe  earthquake  early 
in  the  nineteenth  century.  In  March,  1812,  a  shock 
destroyed  great  parts  of  Caracas,  La  Guaira,  Bar- 
quisimeto,  Merida,  and  other  towns,  and  in  the  capital 
alone  ten  thousand  people  were  killed.  The  great 
earthquake  which,  on  August  13,  1868,  made  itself 
felt  all  over  South  America,  so  much  affected  some 
of  the  Venezuelan  rivers  that  their  waters  over- 
flowed the  banks,  and  even  remained  for  a  short 
time  in  new  channels.  In  1894  Merida  and  other 
towns  in  the  Andes  suffered  much  damage,  houses 
and  churches  being  shaken  down  ;  the  destruction 
was  in  some  cases  extraordinarily  complete.  Since 
that   time   only   slight   tremors   have   been   felt. 

The  internal  heat  in  the  north-eastern  spur  of  the 
Andes,  which  traverses  Venezuela,  manifests  itself  at 
many  points  in  the  form  of  hot  springs.  One,  con- 
taining much  sulphur,  is  found  at  Las  Trincheras, 
between  Valencia  and  Puerto  Cabello.  The  tempera- 
ture of  this  spring  varies,  but  in  1852  it  was  found 
by  Karsten  to  be  only  a  few  degrees  below  the 
boiling  point  of  water  ;  in  general,  however,  it  does 
not  exceed  195°  F.  or  17°  below  boiling  point.  Wall 
found  one  south  of  Carupano  actually  boiling.  All 
along  the  flanks  of  the  coastal  Cordillera  there  are 
mineral  springs,  generally  at  fairly  high  tempera- 
tures, and  many  more  are  known  throughout  the 
Andes.  Nearly  all  these  springs  have  been  used  in 
the  treatment  of  various  diseases,  though  none  has 
achieved  especial  popularity. 

While  hot  springs  may  be  interesting  to  the 
visitor,  they  are  hardly  valuable  assets  to  a  country 
such  as  Venezuela,  but  this  part  of  the  world  has 
always,  and  with  much  justice,  held  the  reputation 
of  being  rich  in  minerals.     There  is  coal  of  fairly 


GEOLOGICAL    HISTORY  45 

good  quality  in  more  than  one  of  the  Cretaceous  and 
Tertiary  groups  of  strata,  near  Barcelona,  Tocuyo, 
Coro,  and  Maracaibo,  as  well  as  in  the  Andes,  but 
the  often-associated  iron  is  only  found  in  large  quan- 
tities in  the  Guayana  gneiss  south  of  the  Orinoco 
Delta. 

Gold,  that  great  lure  for  the  early  European 
ventures  to  the  west,  may  be  said  to  occur  in  almost 
every  State  of  Venezuela,  but  it  has  only  been  worked' 
with  profit  in  Guayana,  even  though  samples  of  a 
quartz-reef  near  Carupano  are  said  to  have  assayed 
7  oz.  to  the  ton.  When  Sir  Robert  Dudley  visited 
the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Paria  in  1595,  he  heard  of 
a  goldmine  near  Orocoa  (Uracoa),  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Llanos,  which  may  mean  that  the  gravels 
are  occasionally  auriferous,  but  unfortunately  he 
failed  to  reach  the  place.  Placer  workings  are  the 
chief  source  of  the  precious  metal  in  the  Guasipati 
goldfields  in  Guayana,  but  the  reefs  from  which  it  is 
derived  have  been  discovered  and  worked  at  odd 
times.  In  British  Guiana,  where  the  conditions  are 
similar,  Mr.  Harrison  says  that  the  gold  is  generally 
found  along  the  later  intrusive  dykes,  the  smallest 
dykes  being  the  richest,  while  most  gold  is  found 
where  a  basalt  intrusion  crosses  one  of  the  older  ones. 

The  ores  of  copper  are  fairly  common  in  the 
northern  Cordillera,  and  the  mines  of  Aroa  in  Yaracuy 
have  been  worked  for  many  years.  Here  the  pyrites 
veins  occur  in  the  Capacho  Limestone,  not  far  from 
where  it  has  been  invaded  by  a  mass  of  granite. 
In  the  Andes  it  seems  to  occur  in  the  more  ancient 
rocks,  as  near  Seboruco  in  Tachira,  and  Bailadores 
in  Merida.  A  mine  near  Pao  seems  to  be  in 
Cretaceous    rocks. 

Many  other  metallic  ores  occur  at  various  points, 
notably  galena  in  the  Andes,  but  one  of  the  most 
common  minerals  of  northern  Venezuela  is  petroleum, 
known  in  its  desiccated  form  as  "  Bermudez  asphalt  " 


46  VENEZUELA 

over  half  the  world.  Boring  for  the  original  mineral 
oil  has  only  recently  been  undertaken.  Sulphur  is 
one  of  the  less  valuable  minerals  which  occur  in 
considerable  quantities,  but  the  so-called  salt-mines 
are  not  strictly  mines  at  all,  and  are  described  in 
Chapter  XVI.  Humboldt  had  heard  of  the  strange 
mineral  lake  near  Lagunillas,  which  contains  a  large 
proportion  of  urao  or  sesqui-carbonate  of  soda,  a 
mineral  not  usually  found  in  nature,  and  here 
apparently  supplied  from  springs  rising  in  the  Segovia 
rocks.  It  is  used  locally  for  mixture  with  tobacco 
juice  to  make  a  chewing  mixture  called  chinio,  but 
there  have  been  projects  to  obtain  the  salt  in  large 
quantities    for    the    manufacture    of    caustic    soda. 

In  addition  to  those  already  mentioned,  all  the 
following  minerals  or  ornamental  stones  have  been 
found  in  one  part  or  another  of  Venezuela,  viz., 
marble,  kaolin,  gypsum,  calcium  phosphate,  opal, 
onyx,  jasper,  quartz,  felspar,  talc,  mica,  staurolite, 
asbestos,  and  ores  of  antimony,  silver,  and  tin. 

The  minerals  of  Venezuela  have  merely  been  men- 
tioned casually  in  this  place,  an  account  of  the  extent 
to  which  they  have  been  exploited  being  deferred 
to  the  chapter  on  the  general  development  of  the 
country.  It  is  evident,  however,  when  one  con- 
siders their  number  and  the  extent  of  their  distribu- 
tion, that  the  geological  changes  which  have  played 
their  part  in  the  building  up  of  the  physical  features 
of  the  country  have  left  Venezuela  in  possession  of 
splendid  assets  in  this  respect. 


CHAPTER    III 

THE   PLANTS   AND   ANIMALS   OF   VENEZUELA 

The  glamour  of  the  South  American  forests — Hidden  treasures — 
Temples  of  Nature — "A  dim  religious  light" — Bejucales — Forest 
giants — Brazil  nuts — Tonka-beans — Rubber — Quinine — Arctic 
and  tropic  forms — The  Llanos — Tierra  calienle — Natural  hot- 
houses— Colour  and  coolness — Paramo  plants — Monkeys — An 
old  friend — Cannibalism — Vampires  and  bats — "  Tigers  "  and 
"  lions" — "  Handsome  is  as  handsome  doesn't  " — Wild  horses — 
Dolphins — Prickly  mice — The  "  water-hog  " — Sloths — Birds — 
Many-coloured  varieties — Umbrella-bird — "  Cock-of-the-rock  " 
— Toucans — Cuckoos — Humming-birds — "Who  are  you?" — 
Oil-birds  —  Parrots  and  macaws  —  Eagles  and  vultures  —  A 
national  disgrace — Game-birds — Snakes — Lizards — From  the 
Orinoco  to  a  city  dinner — A  cup-tie  crowd — Ferocious  fish — 
When  is  a  mosquito  not  a  mosquito  ? — Agricultural  ants — 
Gigantic  spiders — Ticks — A  pugnacious  crustacean — A  rich 
tield. 

Most  of  us,  if  possessed  of  imaginative  faculties, 
have  been  impressed  in  our  youth  by  the  thought  of 
those  vast  virgin  forests  of  South  America,  inhabited, 
as  we  often  used  to  think,  only  by  huge  boa-con- 
strictors and  anacondas  which  lived  to  an  immense 
age  and  continued  to  grow  throughout  their  lifetime  ; 
and  even  in  later  years,  when  experience  at  first 
or  second  hand  has  taught  us  that  the  supposed  silent 
forest  of  the  tropics  is  generally  noisy  with  the  chat- 
tering of  monkeys  and  birds  or  the  perpetual  hum 
and  chirp  of  insects,  and  is  often  far  from  a  desirable 
place  on  account  of  these  last,  the  glamour  of  the 


48  VENEZUELA 

vastness  and  fertility,  of  these  great  untrodden  temples 
of  nature  remains  with  us. 

More  than  half  of  Venezuela  is  covered  by  forest, 
and,  indeed,  comes  within  the  forest  area  of  South 
America  ;  what  botanical  treasures  and  zoological 
curiosities  may  yet  be  discovered,  when  some  explorer 
is  found  to  succeed  Humboldt  and  Schomburgk,  are 
not  to  be  guessed  at,  and  it  is  not  our  purpose  to 
give  a  scientific  account  of  what  has  been  done 
towards  classifying  and  enumerating  the  many  plants 
and  animals  already  known  to  live  in  Venezuela, 
but  to  briefly  describe  what  is  most  interesting  and 
important  to  the  general  reader  who  may  be  inter- 
ested in  the  country  as  a  whole. 

Richest  in  quantity,  and  probably  in  variety,  of 
vegetable  life  is  the  little -known  land  of  Guayana, 
with  its  vast  forests,  hot  climate,  and  heavy  rain- 
fall. Within  it  the  plants  range  from  the  alpine 
shrubs  and  reindeer  moss  of  some  of  the  higher 
plateaux  and  hills  to  the  bamboos  and  orchids  of 
the  river  banks.  The  simile  which  compares  the 
tropical  forest  to  those  darkened  lofty  cathedrals  of 
Europe  has  been  often  used,  and  is,  perhaps,  some- 
what trite,  but  its  aptness  is  incontrovertible.  The 
huge  timber-trees  grow  fairly  close  together,  and 
their  spreading  tops,  fifty,  eighty,  or  a  hundred  feet 
from  the  ground,  with  the  abundant  hanging  lianes 
and  flowering  creepers,  keep  all  but  a  feeble  light 
from  the  ground,  whence  it  comes  that  the  under- 
growth is  usually  sparse  or  absent,  and  progress  on 
foot  is  comparatively  easy.  Sometimes,  however, 
there  are  stretches  of  bejucal,  full  of  tangled  ground 
creepers,  and  it  may  take  a  day  to  cut  a  path  for 
one  mile  through  such  growth  as  this. 

Of  all  the  forest  giants  of  Guayana,  Schomburgk 
considered  the  mora  the  most  magnificent  ;  the 
average  diameter  of  the  trunk  is  about  three  feet, 
and  it  seldom  branches  at  less  than  forty  feet  from 


PLANTS    AND    ANIMALS  49 

the  ground.  The  dark-red,  fine-grained  wood  is  said 
to  be  excellent  for  shipbuilding  purposes.  Mahogany 
or  caoba,  the  palo  de  arco,  whose  wood  is  very 
like  mahogany  in  colour,  and  a  big  tree  called  in 
Venezuela  rosewood,  which  it  resembles,  are  among 
the  timber  trees  of  the  region  known  to  us  in  Europe. 
The  huge  ceibas,  with  their  buttress -like  roots,  have 
a  soft,  easily  worked  wood,  excellent  for  the  dug-out 
canoes  of  the  Indians,  and  the  equally  large  mucuratu 
or  cannon-ball  tree  furnishes  a  beautiful  but  hard 
and  fine-grained  timber.  Unfortunately,  the  very  fer- 
tility of  the  soil  becomes  a  drawback  in  the  exploita- 
tion of  these  timber  resources,  for  all  trees  grow 
with  equal  freedom,  and  the  particular  kind  for  which 
the  lumber-man  is  searching  may  only  be  found  at 
rare  intervals  ;  on  a  large  scale,  when  all  the  valuable 
woods  are  utilised,  this  difficulty  would,  to  some 
extent,  disappear. 

There  are  two  fruit-trees  whose  products  are  well 
known  in  European  markets,  and  though  these  grow 
all  over  Guayana,  they  are  particularly  abundant  in 
certain  regions.  The  Brazil  nut  was  first  described 
by  Humboldt,  but  since  his  time  it  has  become  a 
common  article  of  merchandise  in  Europe  ;  the  tree 
which  bears  it  is  itself  large,  and  the  fruit,  with  its 
fifteen  or  twenty  nuts,  is  tremendously  heavy,  and 
generally  breaks  in  falling  from  the  tree  when  ripe, 
not  infrequently  cracking  the  shells  inside,  when  the 
birds  and  monkeys  are  able  to  enjoy  the  oily  kernel  ; 
otherwise  the  exterior  usually  proves  too  hard.  The 
other  fruit  we  have  referred  to  is  the  sarrapla,  or 
tonka -bean,  not  so  well  known  to  the  general  public 
of  to-day  as  formerly,  though  extensively  used  in 
perfumery.  The  trees  grow  in  greatest  abundance 
and  excellence,  according  to  Andre,  in  the  Caura 
and  Cuchivero  valleys.  The  gums  and  resins  of 
Guayana  include  the  balata,  copaiba-balsam,  and 
rubber-producing  trees,  the  latter  chiefly  varieties  of 
4 


50  VENEZUELA 

Hevea,  while  cinchona  or  quinine  with  innumerable 
creepers  and  trees  possessed  of  medicinal  or  toxic 
properties  are  found  everywhere.  The  2,450  species 
of  plants  referred  to  by  Schomburgk  have  since  been 
added  to,  and  it  is  obvious  that  in  such  an  assembly 
there  must  be  many  of  value,  as  yet  undiscovered  and 
imused. 

The  vegetation  of  the  higher  exposed  peaks  and 
plateaux  is  quite  different  from  that  of  the  forests, 
and  here  Schomburgk  found  such  an  alpine,  or  rather 
Arctic,  form  as  reindeer-moss,  associated  with  semi- 
tropical   rock-orchids   and  aloes. 

The  forest  plants  and  trees  of  Guayana  also 
flourish  in  the  Delta  region  and  in  the  forests  border- 
ing the  Llanos  of  Maturin,  but  the  vegetation  of 
northern  Venezuela  is  generally  very  different  from 
that  of  the  south. 

The  great  green  or  brown  plain  of  the  Llanos  is 
often  beautified  by  small  golden,  white,  and  pink 
flowers,  and  sedges  and  irises  make  up  much  of 
the  small  vegetation.  Here  and  there  the  beautiful 
"  royal  "  palm,  with  its  banded  stem  and  graceful 
crown,  the  moriche,  or  one  of  the  other  kinds,  forms 
clumps  to  break  the  monotony,  and  along  the  small 
streams  are  patches  of  chaparro  bushes,  cashew-nuts, 
locusts,  and  so  forth.  The  banks  of  the  rivers  often 
support  denser  groves  of  ceibas,  crotons,  guamos, 
&c.  ;  the  last-named  bears  a  pod  covered  with  short, 
velvety  hair,  within  which,  around  the  beans  (about 
the  size  of  our  broad  beans),  is  a  cool,  juicy,  very 
refreshing  pulp,  not  unlike  that  of  the  young  cocoa- 
pod.  Along  the  banks  of  the  streams  in  front  of 
the  trees  are  masses  of  reeds  and  semi-aquatic 
grasses,  which  effectually  conceal  the  higher  vege- 
tation from  a  traveller  in  a  canoe  at  water-level. 

As  might  be  expected,  when  we  enter  the  region 
of  the  Cordilleras,  we  find  very  different  types  of 
vegetation  in  the  various  zones.     The  tierra  caliente 


PLANTS    AND    ANIMALS  51 

has  generally  a  heavy  rainfall,  and  then  supports 
thick  forest,  but  along  the  coast  there  are  barren 
stretches  with  only  cactus,  acacia,  croton,  and  similar 
plants,  picturesque,  but  hardly  beautiful.  The  man- 
groves and  their  associated  forms  line  the  shore  in  a 
belt  of  varying  width,  but  behind  follow,  according  to 
the  climate  and  soil,  lowland  forests  or  plains  and 
hills  covered  with  cactus  of  all  shapes  and  sizes, 
some  being  so  large  that  the  woody  stems  are  used 
locally  in  building. 

In  the  tierra  caliente  we  have  the  plantations  of 
cacao,  sugar,  bananas,  plantains,  maize,  and  cassava, 
which  produce  the  staple  foods  of  the  inhabitants,  and 
the  highly  profitable  coconuts,  if  not  cultivated,  are 
at  least  encouraged  and  exploited.  In  addition,  there 
are  the  many  valuable  products  of  the  forests,  chief 
of  which  are  the  dye-woods  and  tanning  barks,  in- 
cluding logwood,  dividive,  mangrove,  indigo,  and 
many  others.  A  good  deal  of  valuable  timber  grows 
in  parts  of  the  forest,  the  chief  woods  exported  being 
mahogany   and    "  cedar." 

As  we  rise  into  the  cooler  regions,  we  find,  natur- 
ally, a  mixture  of  the  hot-country  plants  and  those 
of  the  mountains  ;  particularly  is  this  so  in  the  case 
of  cultivated  kinds.  One  may  see  in  the  same  valley, 
within  a  short  distance  of  one  another,  bananas,  pota- 
toes, sugar-cane,  wheat,  yuca  or  cassava,  peas,  maize, 
cotton,  cocoa,  and  coffee,  all  flourishing,  and  a  single 
orchard  may  contain  guavas  and  apples,  peaches  and 
oranges,  papayas  and  quinces,  not  to  mention  many 
other  fruits  ;  the  garden  adjoining  will  have  a 
mixture  of  roses,  carnations,  violets,  and  dahlias  with 
bougainvilleas,  dragon's  blood,  magnolias,  and  other 
tropical  flowers.  Strawberries,  mint,  bulrushes, 
nasturtiums,  and  other  of  our  garden  plants  have  been 
successfully  naturalised  in  these  mountain  regions 
within   10°  of  the  equator. 

The  higher   part   of   the  tierra   tempiada   exhibits 


52  VENEZUELA 

the  greatest  variety,  of  plants  peculiar  to  this  zone. 
As  one  travels  along  the  mountain  roads,  in  addition 
to  new  kinds  of  palms,  one  sees  screw-pines  and 
beautiful  tree-ferns,  splendid  white  rock -orchids  and 
purple  parasitic  varieties,  red  and  white  rhododen- 
drons and  heaths,  cranberries,  blackberries,  ivy, 
passion-flowers,  yews,  quinine-trees,  aloes  of  all 
kinds,  small  bamboos,  silver-ferns,  and  all  manner 
of  beautiful  flowering  shrubs  and  plants,  for  it  is 
here  and  not  in  the  hotter  tropical  regions  that  we 
have  the  greatest  variety  of  colour  and  the  most 
beautiful  floral   scenery. 

Nor  is  the  tierra  frla  of  the  Cordilleras  without 
its  beauty  and  interest  to  the  botanist.  The  small 
woods  of  the  temperate  zone  gradually  die  out, 
and  towards  the  snow-line  we  have  the  alpine  grasses, 
heaths,  and  lichens  of  the  paramos,  amongst  which 
are  scattered  those  peculiar  white  or  yellow,  thick- 
leaved,  aloe-shaped  plants  which,  strangely  enough, 
have  lumps  of  resin  clinging  to  their  roots,  and  seem 
in  this  respect  to  supply  the  place  of  the  pines  and 
firs  which  are  not  found  in  Venezuela. 
V  There  is  at  least  one  animal  found  in  the  forests 
of  Guayana  which  is  familiar  even  to  the  untravelled 
Cockney,  namely,  the  prehensile-tailed  capuchin 
monkey  or  sapajou,  of  which  several  species  are 
known  in  Venezuela,  while  they  are  the  most  common 
tame  kind  brought  to  Europe.  Humboldt's  woolly 
monkey,  which  is  nearly  allied,  is  dark  grey,  the 
capuchin  being  generally  reddish  ;  its  flesh  is  said 
to  be  excellent  eating  for  those  who  feel  no  qualms 
at  nearing  the  verge  of  cannibalism.  Many  other 
kinds  are  found  in  the  forests,  including  the  black 
thumbless  spider-monkeys,  but  the  variegated  spider- 
monkey,  of  which  the  first  specimen  brought  alive  to 
England  came  from  the  Upper  Caura  in  1870,  is  a 
gorgeous  beast,  with  black  back,  white  cheeks,  a  band 
of   bright    reddish-yellow   across    the   forehead,    and 


PLANTS    AND    ANIMALS  53 

yellow  imder-surface  to  body  and  limbs.  The  banded 
douroucouli  also  occurs  in  southern  Venezuela,  and 
Mr.  Bates  has  described  how,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Amazon,  a  person  passing  by  a  tree  in  which  a 
number  of  them  are  concealed  may  be  startled 
by  the  apparition  of  a  number  of  little  striped  faces 
crowding  a  hole  in  the  trunk.  Their  ears  are  very, 
small.  The  graceful  little  squirrel-monkeys,  with 
dark  fur  shot  with  gold,  the  titi,  reddish-black,  with 
a  white  spot  on  the  chest,  the  white-headed  and 
other  sakis,  and  the  abundant  and  very  noisy  howlers 
are  all  denizens  of  the  Guayana  forests.  Nor  must 
we  omit  to  mention  the  pretty  little  marmosets,  which 
are  often  kept  as  pets. 

Bats,  and  their  objectionable  cousins,  the  vampires, 
are  abundant  in  Venezuela,  but  the  true  blood-sucking 
vampire  does  not  seem  to  be  very  common. 

There  are,  of  course,  no  tigers  or  lions,  properly 
so  called,  in  the  New  World,  but  the  names  have 
been  usurped  by  similar  beasts,  the  jaguar  and  the 
puma.  The  tan -coloured  fur  of  the  former,  with 
its  large  rosette-like  spots,  is  very  beautiful^  and 
quite  equals  that  of  the  tiger  in  large  specimens, 
while  for  agility  it  more  than  rivals  its  Asiatic 
relative,  being  credited  with  climbing  trees  and  living 
there  in  times  of  severe  flood,  to  the  great  danger 
and  annoyance  of  the  usual  inhabitants,  the  monkeys . 
The  tawny  puma  is  also  said  to  chase  the  monkeys 
in  the  tree-tops,  even  in  ordinary  times.  The  other 
large  cats  of  Venezuela  include  the  ocelot,  jaguarondi, 
and  margay,  and  there  is  the  one  fox-like  "  Azara's  " 
dog. 

The  peculiar-looking  "  spectacled  bear  "  is  found 
up  in  the  Andes,  and  the  kinkajou  represents  the 
raccoon  tribe,  while  the  weasels  include  the  tayra 
and  grison,  and  their  relative,  the  handsome  but  most 
objectionable  skunk,  occasionally  pollutes  the  atmo- 
sphere with  his  presence.     The  big  Brazilian  otter, 


54  VENEZUELA 

with  chocolate -brown  fur,  is  found  in  the  rivers  of 
the   Llanos . 

Amongst  the  hoofed  animals,  the  red  Brazilian 
and  Ecuador  brockets  represent  the  deer,  and  there 
are  two  species  of  vaqulra  or  peccary,  in  addition 
to  the  now  acclimatised  European  pig.  Horses  and 
donkeys  live  in  a  semi -wild  state  on  the  Llanos, 
though  their  nearest  relative  native  to  the  country 
is  the  tapir  or  danta,  a  very  different  beast  in  ap- 
pearance. 

The  nailless  manati  of  the  Orinoco  mouth  is  fairly 
common,  and  higher  up  the  river  there  is  a  fresh- 
water dolphin  :  the  author  observed  a  fish-like  beast 
in  the  Lake  of  Maracaibo,  which  may  be  the  same 
species,  though  out  in  the  salt  water  of  the  Carib- 
bean the  common  dolphin  is  found,  as  well  as  the 
cachalot,  and  another  species  of  whale  is  said  to 
have  been  seen  there. 

The  rodents  include  a  number  of  species  of  great 
scientific  interest,  but  for  the  ordinary  individual  one 
rat  or  shrew  is  much  like  another,  and  the  squirrels, 
mice,  rabbits,  hedgehogs,  and  allied  animals  are  very 
similar  to  those  of  Europe.  One  of  the  mice  has 
flattened  spines  mingled  with  the  fur,  and  the  coypu 
or  perro  de  agua  has  a  very  harsh  coat,  though  it 
is  rather  like  a  beaver  in  appearance  and  habits, 
while  some  near  relatives  of  smaller  size  have  the 
same  peculiar  flattened  spines  on  the  back.  The 
peculiar  Brazilian  tree-porcupine  is  a  Guayana 
species.  The  gracefully  formed  aguti  or  acure  is 
common  in  the  Venezuelan  forests,  and  its  near 
relative,  the  aguchi,  is  found  there  with  the  lapfm. 
or  paca,  the  flesh  of  which  is  excellent  eating.  The 
big  "water-hog,"  chigiiire  or  capybara,  familiar  to 
Zoo  visitors,  occurs  in  Guayana  and  elsewhere. 

There  are  several  sloths  common  in  the  low-lying 
parts  of  the  Guayana  forests  and  similar  regions  of 
northern  Venezuela,  and  the  great-maned  ant-eater  or 


PLANTS    AND    ANIMALS  55 

"  ant-bear,"  with  the  lesser  ant-eater,  is  as  often 
seen  in  Venezuela  as  in  any  part  of  South  America, 
while  Guayana  is  the  centre  of  the  small  district  in 
which  the  peculiar  two -toed  ant-eater  is  found.  The 
cachicamos  or  armadillos  are  much  esteemed  as  food 
in  the  forest  districts. 

The  marsupials  are  represented  by  the  rablpelados 
or  opossums  and  the  perrlto  de  agua  or  water- 
opossum. 

The  birds,  being  more  commonly  seen,  are  perhaps 
of  greater  interest  than  the  mammals,  and  certainly 
many  of  the  Venezuelan  birds  are  beautiful,  though, 
as  frequently  happens,  what  they  gain  in  plumage 
they  lose  in  song,  and  few  have  even  a  pleasant 
note. 

Beautifully  coloured  jays,  the  peculiar  cassiques, 
with  their  hanging  nests,  starlings,  and  the  many 
violet,  scarlet,  and  other  tanagers,  with  some  very 
pretty  members  of  the  finch  tribe,  are  all  fairly 
abundant  in  Venezuela.  Greenlets,  some  of  the  allied 
waxwings,  and  thrushes  of  various  kinds,  with  the 
equally  familiar  wrens,  are  particularly  abundant,  nor 
does  the  cosmopolitan  swallow  absent  himself  from 
this  part  of  the  world.  The  numerous  family  of  the 
American  flycatchers  has  fifty  representatives  in 
Venezuela,  and  the  allied  ant-birds  constitute  one  of 
the  exceptions  to  the  rule,  in  possessing  a  pleasant 
warbling  note.  The  chatterers  include  some  of  the 
most  notable  birds  of  \'enezuela,  and  we  may  specially 
notice  the  strange -looking  umbrella-bird  which 
extends  into  the  Amazon  territory,  known  from 
its  note  as  the  fife-bird  ;  the  variegated  bell-bird, 
which  makes  a  noise  like  the  ringing  of  a  bell  ;  the 
gay  manikins,  whose  colours  include  blue,  crimson, 
orange,  and  yellow,  mingled  with  sober  blacks, 
browns,  and  greens  ;  the  nearly  allied  cock-of-the- 
rock  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  birds  of  Guayana, 
orange-red  being  the  principal  colour  in  its  plumage, 


56  VENEZUELA 

wliile  its  helmet-like  crest  adds  to  its  grandeur  ;  the 
hen  is  a  uniform  reddish-brown.  The  wood-hewers 
are  more  of  interest  from  their  habits  than  the  beauty 
of  their  plumage. 

The  beautiful  green  jacamars,  the  puff-birds,  and 
the  bright-coloured  woodpeckers  are  found  all  over 
Venezuela  in  the  forests,  but  their  relatives  the  toucans 
are  among  the  most  peculiar  of  the  feathered  tribe. 
With  their  enormous  beaks  and  gaudy  plumage  they 
are  easily  recognised  when  seen,  and  can  make  a 
terrible  din  if  a  number  of  them  collected  together 
are  disturbed,  the  individual  cry  being  short  and  un- 
melodious.  Several  cuckoos  are  found  in  Venezuela, 
some  having  more  or  less  dull  plumage  and  being 
rare,  while  others  with  brighter  feathers  are 
gregarious.  With  the  trogons,  however,  we  come 
to  the  near  relatives  of  the  beautiful  quezal,  all 
medium-sized  birds,  with  the  characteristic  nietallic 
blue  or  green  back  and  yellow  or  red  breasts.  The 
tiny,  though  equally  beautiful,  humming-birds  are 
common  sights  in  the  forest,  but  a  sharp  eye  is 
needed  to  detect  them  in  their  rapid  flight  through 
the  dim  light  ;  some  of  the  Venezuelan  forms  are 
large,  however,  notably  the  king  humming-bird  of 
Guayana  ;  and  the  crested  coquettes,  though  smaller, 
are  still  large  enough  to  make  their  golden-green 
plumage  conspicuous.  The  birds  which  perhaps  most 
force  themselves,  not  by  sight  but  by  sound,  upon 
the  notice  of  travellers  are  the  night- jars  ;  the  "  who 
are  you?  "  is  as  well  known  in  Trinidad  as  in 
Venezuela.  The  great  wood  night -jar  of  Guayana  has 
a  very  peculiar  mournful  cry,  particularly  uncanny 
when  heard  in  the  moonlight.  The  kingfisher-like 
motmots  have  one  representative  in  Venezuela,  but 
the  other  member  of  the  group,  which  includes  all 
the  preceding  birds,  constitute  a  family  by  itself. 
This  is  the  oil-bird  or  guacharo,  famous  from  Hum- 
boldt's  description   of  the  cave   of  Caripe   in   which 


PLANTS    AND    ANIMALS  57 

they  were  first  found.  The  young  birds  are  covered 
with  thick  masses  of  yellow  fat,  for  which  they  are 
killed  in  large  numbers  by  the  local  peasantry.  They 
live  in  caves  wherever  they  are  found  and  only  come 
out  to  feed  at  dusk. 

Other  birds  which  are  sure  to  be  observed  even  by 
the  least  ornithological  traveller  are  the  parrots  and 
macaws  which  fly  in  flocks  from  tree  to  tree  of  the 
forest,  uttering  their  discordant  cries.  The  macaws 
have  blue  and  red  or  yellow  plumage,  but  the  parrots 
and  parraquets  are  all  wholly  or  mainly  of  a  green 
hue.  The  several  owls  are  naturally  seldom  seen, 
and,  in  the  author's  experience,  rarely  heard. 

There  are  no  less  than  thirty-two  species  of  falcons 
or  eagles  known  from  Venezuela,  and  of  these  many 
are  particularly  handsome,  such  as  the  swallow-tailed 
kite  and  the  harpy  eagle  of  Guayana.  Their  loath- 
some carrion-eating  cousins,  the  vultures,  have  four 
representatives. 

In  the  rivers  and  caiios  of  the  lowlands  there  are 
abundant  water-birds,  and  the  identified  species 
include  a  darter,  two  pelicans,  several  herons  or 
garzas,  the  indiscriminate  slaughter  of  which  in  the 
breeding  season  for  egret  plumes  has  been  one  of 
the  disgraces  of  Venezuela,  as  well  as  storks  and 
ibises.  Among  the  most  beautiful  birds  of  these 
districts  are  the  rosy  white  or  scarlet  flamingoes, 
huge  flocks  of  which  are  sometimes  seen  rising  from 
the  water's  edge  at  the  approach  of  a  boat  or 
canoe.  There  are  also  seven  Venezuelan  species 
of  duck. 

The  various  pigeons  and  doves  possess  no  very 
notable  characteristics,  and  one  or  two  of  the 
American  quails  are  found  in  the  Andes.  Other 
game-birds  include  the  fine-crested  curassows  of 
Guayana,  the  nearly  allied  guans,  and  the  pheasant- 
like hoatzin.  There  are  several  rails,  and  the  finfeet 
are  represented.     The  sun  bittern  is  very  common  on 


58  VENEZUELA 

the  Orinoco.  There  are  members  of  the  following 
groups  :  the  trumpeters  (tamed  in  Brazil  to  protect 
poultry),  plovers,  terns,  petrels,  grebes,  and,  lastly, 
seven  species  of  the  flightless  tinamous. 

Descending  lower  in  the  scale,  we  come  to  the 
animals  which  are,  or  used  to  be,  most  often 
associated  in  the  mind  with  the  forests  of  South 
America.  The  snakes  are  very  numerous,  but  only 
a  minority  are  poisonous.  Of  the  latter  the  beautiful 
but  deadly  coral-snake  is  not  very  common,  but  a 
rattlesnake  and  the  formidable  "  bushm aster  "  are 
often  seen.  Of  the  non-poisonous  variety  the  water- 
loving  boas  and  tigres  or  anacondas  are  mainly  con- 
fined to  the  Delta  and  the  banks  of  the  Guayana 
rivers.  The  cazadora  (one  of  the  colubers)  and  the 
Brazilian  wood-snake  or  sipo,  with  its  beautiful 
coloration,  are  common  ;  the  blind  or  velvet  snake 
is  often  found  in  the  enclosures  of  dwellings. 

One  of  the  lizards,  the  amphisbasna,  is  known 
in  the  country  as  the  double-headed  snake,  and  is 
popularly  supposed  to  be  poisonous,  but  there  are 
many  species  of  the  pretty  and  more  typical  forms, 
especially  in  the  dry  regions,  while  the  edible  iguana 
is  common  in  the  forests.  There  are  eleven  species 
of  crocodiles,  of  which  the  caiman  infests  all  the 
larger  rivers  and  canos.  The  Chelonidae  include  only 
two  land  tortoises,  but  there  are  several  turtles  in 
the  seas  and  rivers,  and  representatives  of  this  family 
from  the  Gulf  of  Paria  often  figure  on  the  menus 
of  City  companies. 

There  are  some  six  genera  of  frogs  and  toads 
to  represent  the  Amphibians,  and  the  evening  croak- 
ing of  the  various  species  of  the  former  on  the  Llapos 
is  very  characteristic  of  those  regions  ;  one,  in  par- 
ticular, emits  a  sound  like  a  human  shout,  and  a 
number  of  them  give  the  impression  of  a  crowd  at 
a  football  match. 

Fish  abound  in  rivers,  lakes,  and  seas,  but,  con- 


^h 


^ 


m 


CLOUD-DRIFTS    IN    THE    ANDES. 


TORBES    VALLEY   AND    THE   COLOMBIAN    HILL 


To  face  page  58. 


PLANTS    AND    ANIMALS  59 

sidering  their  number,  remarkably  little  is  known 
about  them.  Some  are  regarded  as  poisonous,  and 
others  are  certainly  dangerous,  such  as  the  small 
but  ferocious  carihe  of  the  Llano  rivers,  which  is 
particularly  feared  by  bathers,  as  an  attack  from  a 
shoal  results  in  numbers  of  severe,  often  fatal, 
wounds.  The  temhlador  or  electric  eel  is  very 
abundant  in  the  western  Llanos,  and  is  as  dangerous 
in  its  way  as  the  carihe. 

The  insects  are  too  numerous  for  more  than  casual 
reference,  but  it  may  be  noted  that  the  mosquito  of 
the  Spaniards  is  a  small  and  very  annoying  sandfly  ; 
the  mosquito  as  we  know  it  is,  and  always  has  been, 
called  zancudo  de  noche  by  the  Spanish-speaking 
inhabitants  of  Venezuela.  The  gorgeous  butterflies 
and  the  emerald  lights  of  the  fireflies  are  in  a 
measure  a  compensation  for  the  discomforts  caused 
by  their  relatives,  but  of  the  less  attractive  forms,  the 
most  interesting  are  the  hunting  ants,  which  swarm 
through  houses  at  times  devouring  all  refuse,  and 
the  parasol  ants,  which  make  with  the  leaves  they 
carry  hot -beds,  as  it  were,  for  the  fungus  upon  which 
they  feed. 

One  of  the  most  unpleasant  of  the  lower  forms  of 
life  in  the  forests  is  the  araha  mono  or  big  spider  of 
Guayana,  which  sometimes  measures  more  than  six 
inches  across  ;  it  is  found  in  the  remote  parts  of  the 
forest,  and  its  bites  cause  severe  fever.  The 
better-known  tarantula,  though  less  dangerous,  can 
inflict  severe  bites.  The  extremely  poisonous 
scorpions  and  the  garrapatas  or  ticks  must  be  seen 
or  felt  to  be  appreciated. 

We  may  leave  the  lower  forms  of  life  to  more 
technical  works,  but  the  amusing  "  calling-crab  "  de- 
serves special  mention.  With  his  one  enormous  paw 
of  pincers  the  male  if  disturbed  will  sit  upon  the 
mud  or  sand  and  apparently  challenge  all  the  world 
to  "  come  on  "  in  a  most  amusing  fashion. 


60  VENEZUELA 

A  host  of  interesting  birds,  beasts,  and  plants  have 
already  been  found  in  Venezuela,  and  it  still  presents 
an  almost  virgin  field  for  the  botanist  and  zoologist, 
to  whom  the  technical  literature  given  in  the  biblio- 
graphy will  prove  of  more  use  than  this  necessarily 
brief  sketch. 


CHAPTER    IV 

VENEZUELA    UNDER   SPANISH    RULE   AND    BEFORE 

Pre-Columbian  times — No  great  empire — Primitive  Venezuelans — 
Picture  rocks — Invasions — The  Guatavitas  and  the  legend  of 
El  Dorado — Amalivaca — An  Inca  prince  ? — Ancient  roads — 
The  discovery  of  Tterra  Firnic,  1498 — Alonso  de  Ojeda — The 
name  Venezuela — A  great  geographical  fraud — Discovery  of 
the  treasures  of  the  west — Arrival  of  the  conqiiistadores — The 
slave  trade — Treacheries  of  the  Cubagua  colonists — Gonzalez 
de  Ocampo — Las  Casas — First  cities  of  the  New  World — 
Settlement  of  Coro — The  Welsers — Alfinger — Ingratitude  of 
Charles  V. — New  Andalusia — Exploration  of  the  Orinoco — 
Cruelties  of  Alfinger — Exploration  of  the  Llanos — First  Bishop 
of  Venezuela — Destruction  of  New  Cadiz — Faxardo  and  the 
Caracas — Cities  of  Western  Venezuela — The  rebellion  of  Aguirrc 
— Foundation  of  Caracas — Pimentel  moves  his  capita^  to  the 
new  city — Capture  of  Caracas  by  English  buccaneers — Inac- 
curacies of  Spanish  historians — Explorations  of  Berrio  in  Guayana 
— Raleigh  and  El  Dorado — Attempts  to  civilise  the  Indians 
— Missions— University  of  Caracas — Guipuzcoana  Company — 
Revolution  of  Gual  and  Espana — Miranda — The  last  Captain- 
General — The  Junta — Appeals  to  England — The  Declaration  of 
Independence. 

The  advanced  civilisations  of  early,  Peru  and  Mexico 
have  left  us,  despite  the  vicious  destruction  of  every- 
thing "  heathen  "  by  the  "  Christian  "  conquistadorcs, 
in  possession  of  sufficient  documents  of  one  kind 
or  another  to  glean  a  fairly  complete  and  consecutive 
story  of  those  cotmtries  in  pre-Columbian  times,  as 
we  may  term  that  period  before  the  discovery  of 
the  New  World  by   Coltimbus.      It   is   otherwise   in 


62  VENEZUELA 

Venezuela  ;  here  there  seems  to  have  been  no 
advanced  civilisation,  and  the  conquistadores  were 
as  incapable  of  noticing  or  recording  details  of  the 
social  organisation  and  international  relations  of  the 
savage  aborigines  as  of  appreciating  the  knowledge 
and  skill  of  Incas  or  Aztecs  ;  hence  we  have  to 
depend  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  on  the  information 
gathered  with  difficulty  from  buried  ruins,  tombs, 
and  sepulchre-caves.  Dr.  G.  Marcano  has  been  one 
of  the  chief  workers  in  this  direction,  and  his  system- 
atic and  painstaking  work  may  one  day  give  us  a 
fairly  complete  picture  of  Venezuela  before  the 
Spaniards. 

In  the  remote  past,  long  (though  we  do  not  know 
how  long)  before  the  arrival  of  the  white  men  from 
the  east,  the  land  appears  to  have  been  sparsely 
peopled  by  semi-nomadic,  primitive  tribes  of  a  long- 
headed race,  whose  social  organisation  was  limited 
to  a  grouping  in  temporary  villages,  while  in  the  arts 
they  had  advanced  as  far  as  the  making  of  rude 
earthenware,  and  perhaps  the  use  of  curiously  shaped 
stones  for  personal  adornment.  They  buried  their 
dead  in  caves,  either  natural  or  artificial,  placing 
them  in  a  sitting  posture  in  palm-leaf  frails  or 
earthenware  urns,  accompanied  by  small  pieces  of 
pottery  and  other  household  matters.  The  names 
of  "  tribes  "  in  Guayana  appear  to  be  far  too 
numerous  to  be  really,  distinct  races,  and  it  is 
probable  that  they  represent  merely  the  more  per- 
manent associations  of  villages  or  groups  of  villages 
with  slight  differences  of  dialect.  In  Humboldt's 
time  there  were  traditions  of  the  internecine  war- 
fare of  these  "  tribes,"  and  it  is  possible  that  in 
times  of  strife  they  were  guilty  of  cannibalism, 
though  in  later  days  authentic  occurrences  of  the 
eating  of  human  flesh  were  very  rare,  if  existent 
at  all. 

Throughout  Guayana  there  are  crude  rock  inscrip- 


UNDER    SPANISH    RULE  03 

tions  of  comparatively  ancient  date,  apparently  repre- 
senting an  early  attempt  at  picture-writing,  and  it 
is  said  that  some  of  the  shy  and  reticent  Indian  tribes 
appear  to  know  the  meaning  of  these.  As  yet  no 
one  has  obtained  any  satisfactory  clue  to  the  purpose 
of  these  rocas  pintadas. 

We  have  said  that  these  long-headed  peoples  occu- 
pied the  land  in  the  remote  past,  though  their 
descendants  were  to  be  found  in  parts  of  Venezuela 
in  comparatively  recent  times,  and  tribes  of  mixed 
race  still  bear  witness  to  their  existence.  Many  years 
before  the  Spanish  conquest,  however,  there  was  a 
great  influx  of  the  more  normal  short-headed  peoples, 
divided  into  more  or  less  civilised  communities,  and 
possessed  of  some  proficiency  in  the  arts,  with  beliefs 
which  were,  in  some  respects,  an  advance  upon  the 
Nature-worship  of  the  earlier  inhabitants. 

These  last  were  soon  compelled  to  withdraw  into 
the  mountain  fastnesses,  or  the  equally  inaccessible 
forests  of  the  south,  while  their  conquerors  settled 
in  the  Caribbean  Hills  and  the  lower  valleys  of  the 
Andes,  where  at  some  points  excavations  have  re- 
vealed something  of  their  customs.  Though  greatly 
inferior  to  the  ruling  nations  of  Peru  and  Mexico, 
these  races  must  still  be  looked  upon  as  inter- 
mediate between  them  and  the  savages  already 
referred  to. 

The  Guatavitas  of  the  plateau  of  Bogota,  whose 
great  religious  festival  probably  gave  rise  to  the 
legend  of  El  Dorado  and  his  golden  city  of  Manoa, 
may  be  taken  as  representing  their  higher  develop- 
ment. The  Guatavita  chief,  according  to  Acosta, 
used  on  the  occasion  of  this  annual  festival  to  smear 
his  body  with  turpentine  preparatory  to  rolling  in 
gold-dust  ;  then,  proceeding  on  a  barge  to  the  centre 
of  their  sacred  lake,  he  would  cast  into  it  gold  orna- 
ments, emeralds,  and  other  valuables,  finally  plung- 
ing into  the  waters  himself,  an  action  which  was  the 


64  VENEZUELA 

signal  for  shouts  of  applause  from  the  worshippers 
on  the  banks.! 

Whether  the  Incas  ever  really,  held  any  communi- 
cation with  these  lowland  peoples  it  is  impossible 
at  present  to  say,  but  perhaps  the  legend  of  Amali- 
vaca,  who,  the  Indians  say,  visited  them  and  began 
to  teach  them  to  write,  finally  sailing  away  to  the 
east  with  a  promise  to  return,  may  be  based  upon 
an  actual  visit  of  a  Peruvian  leader,  who  left  on  an 
exploratory  voyage  to  the  east,  from  which  he  never 
returned,  at  least  to  these  shores.  It  is  strange  that 
there  was  in  Humboldt's  time  on  the  Llanos  between 
Barinas  and  the  River  Apure  some  twenty  miles  of 
well-made  road,  elevated  about  fifteen  feet  above 
the  frequently  flooded  plains,  the  remains  of  a  cause- 
way from  the  mountains  made  long  before  Spanish 
times,  and  apparently  the  work  of  some  nation  far 
more  advanced  in  the  arts  than  any  living  close  at 
hand. 

We  emerge  from  these  regions  of  conjecture  into 
the  definite  historical  period  rather  more  than  five 
years  after  the  first  discovery  of  the  islands  of  the 
New  Continent  by  Columbus,  when  the  great  ex- 
plorer, on  his  third  westward  journey,  coasted  along 
the  south  side  of  the  Peninsula  of  Paria  on  July  31, 
1498.  He  did  not  land  there,  but  his  son  tells  us 
that  from  the  ships  they  could  see  men  on  the  shore 
dressed  in  vari-coloured  turbans  and  loincloths. 
When  he  entered  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  he  had  expected 
to  be  able  to  pass  out  on  the  west  side,  believing 
the  peninsula  to  be  an  island  ;  realising  his  error, 
he  turned  back  and  entered  the  Caribbean  through 
the  Boca  del  Draco,  "  giving  thanks  to  God  who 
delivered  him  from  so  many  troubles  and  dangers, 
still    showing    him    new    countries    full    of    peaceful 

'  This  lake  has  recently  been  drained  by  an  English  syndicate, 
who  have  already  found  some  evidence  which  tends  to  show  that 
the  story  is  substantially  correct. 


UNDER    SPANISH    RULE  65 

people,  and  great  wealth."  On  his  way  across  jto 
Hispaniola  (Santo  Domingo),  he  passed  by  an  island 
which  he  named  Margarita,  knowing  nothing,  as  it 
seems,  of  the  rich  pearl  fisheries  which  later  rendered 
the  name  so   appropriate. 

Great  enthusiasm  was  naturally  kindled  in  Spain 
by  the  news  of  the  discovery  of  a  mainland  {Tierra 
Firmc)  west  of  the  islands,  and  it  was  decided  to 
send  a  special  exploratory,  expedition.  Hence  we 
have  Alonso  de  Ojeda  setting  sail  in  1499,  and 
landing  several  times  on  what  is  now  the  Peninsula 
of  Paria,  though  he  knew  it  by  the  native  name  of 
Maracapana.  The  region  generally  he  designated 
Nueva  Andalusia.  Encouraged  by  what  he  had  seen, 
he  sailed  on  westwards  as  far  as  Cabo  de  la  Vela 
(now  in  Colombia),  and  entered  the  Lake  of  JVlara- 
caibo  or  Coquibacoa.  Here  there  were  at  that  time, 
as  now,  Indian  pile-dwellings  on  the  shores  of  the 
lake,  which  so  far  reminded  Ojeda  of  Venice  or 
Venezia,  that  he  gave  to  the  region  the  name  of 
Little  Venice,   or  Venezuela. 

Thus  we  have  the  mainland  of  the  New  World  or 
the  Indies  first  sighted  by  Columbus  and  partly  ex- 
amined and  named  by  Ojeda,  but  we  may  here  turn 
aside  from  the  story  of  Venezuela  for  a  moment  to 
see  how,  by  a  great  and  successful  geographical 
fraud,  the  whole  of  the  continent  came  to  be  called 
America:, 

There  was  on  Ojeda's  ship  a  Florentine  merchant 
by  name  Amerigo  Vespucci,  who  appeared  to  have 
contented  himself  on  this  voyage  with  gazing  from 
the  deck  at  the  shores  of  the  new  countries.  After 
returning  to  Europe,  he  developed  sufficient  zeal  to 
make  a  voyage  on  his  own  account  to  Brazil,  and 
wrote  a  clever  joint  account  of  both  voyages,  in 
which  he  represented  himself  as  a  leader  in  the  first 
expedition  which  efi"ected  a  landing  on  the  main- 
land of  the  New  World.  This  suggestio  falsi,  if  it 
5 


66  VENEZUELA 

deserves  no  harsher  term,  led  Martin  Hylacomylus  in 
his  "  Cosmographia,"  published  in  1509,  to  say,  of 
the  discovery  of  the  different  parts  of  the  globe  : 
"  Alia  quarta  pars  per  America  Vesputiam  .  .  . 
innenta  est :  qua  non  video  cur  quis  iure  vetet  ah 
America  inventatore  .  .  .  Amerigen  quasi  Americi 
terram,  siue  Americam  dicendamy  '  Thus  it  comes 
that  a  third  of  the  land  of  the  globe  bears  the  name 
of  a  man  who  had  no  claim  to  be  considered  as  of 
any  particular  importance  on  the  ship  which  bore  the 
first  Spanish  explorers  who  set  foot  in  Venezuela. 

Meanwhile,  close  behind  Ojeda  there  was  travelling 
an  expedition  including  Pedro  Alonso  Nino,  Luis 
Guerra,  and  Christobal  Guerra,  who  visited  Margarita 
and  the  adjacent  islands  of  Cubagua,  where  they 
had  some  intercourse  with  the  natives  and  obtained 
from  them  by  barter  a  number  of  pearls.  Next 
they  touched  the  Cumanagoto  coast,  not  far  from 
where  Barcelona  now  stands,  and  sailed  from  there 
to  the  Coro  district.  Here  again  they  were  well 
received  by  the  natives,  and  exchanged  European 
trinkets  with  them  for  gold  and  pearls.  They  con- 
tinued their  voyage  as  far  as  the  Goajira  Peninsula, 
but  found  the  people  there  of  a  fierce  and  menacing 
aspect,  so  they  returned  to  Spain,  bearing  news  of 
the  wealth  of  the  West. 

Had  those  natives  only  kept  their  pearls  and 
golden  trinkets  from  the  sight  of  these  first  genuine 
explorers,  the  history  of  Venezuela  might  have  been 
very  different.  The  white  men  who  next  visited 
Venezuela  were  little,  if  anything,  more  than  rapa- 
cious brigands,  consumed  with  a  lust  for  gain,  before 
which  any  shreds  of  morality  or  good  feeling  they 
may  once   have   possessed   went   for   nothing. 

'  "Another  fourth  part  was  discovered  .  .  .  by  Amerigo  Vespucci : 
wherefore  I  do  not  see  why  it  should  not  be  justly  permissible  to 
name  it  after  Amerigo  the  discoverer  .  .  .  AmerigJ^,  the  land  of 
Americas,  or  America." 


UNDER    SPANISH    RULE  67 

In  the  year  1500  some  fifty  adventurers,  sailing 
from  Hispaniola,  established  a  settlement  on  Cubagua 
for  the  pearl  fisheries,  and  soon  a  horde  of  nonde- 
scripts from  all  the  countries  of  Europe  flocked  to 
this  source  of  easily,  won  treasure,  which  under  their 
uncontrolled  and  extravagant  exploitation  began  to 
fail  rapidly.  With  appetites  whetted,  these  spoilt 
children  of  fortune  turned  to  look  for  other  means 
of  acquiring  wealth,  always  provided  these  did  not 
entail  any  honest  toil,  and  from  this  time  begins 
the  long  black  record  of  Spanish  cruelties  in  the 
Indies,  with  the  fabricated  excuses  of  cannibalism 
and  ferocity  among  the   Indians. 

To  appreciate  the  position  we  must  recall  the  in- 
famous decree  of  Charles  V.  of  Spain,  which  per- 
mitted the  Europeans  in  the  Indies  to  capture  and 
enslave  the  natives  who  in  any  way  opposed  the 
"  colonisation  "  of  the  new  countries,  or  who  practised 
cannibalism.  The  Indians  being  found  most  repre- 
hensibly  innocent  of  either  of  these  crimes,  the 
Cubaguans  pronounced  their  very  presence  an 
evidence  of  opposition,  and  further  assumed  that  they 
must  all  be  cannibals.  Carefully  avoiding  the  pos- 
sibility of  arousing  the  wrath  of  the  fine  and  stalwart 
Guaiquerias  of  Margarita,  who  lived  in  uncomfort- 
able proximity  to  their  tovm,  they  took  steps  to 
enslave  some  of  the  more  remote  Indians  of  the 
mainland. 

While  the  world,  the  flesh,  and  the  devil  had  been 
having  things  to  themselves  on  Cubagua,  the  Church 
had  been  entering  upon  the  new  field  of  missionary 
work  on  the  mainland,  and  three  Franciscan  monks 
settled  on  the  Cumand,  coast  in  15 13,  while  some 
Dominicans  established  a  little  community  at  Manjar, 
near  Piritu.  At  both  places  the  monks  were  on  the 
most  friendly  terms  with  the  natives,  on  whom,  at 
that  date,  their  influence  was  wholly  for  good. 

The  Franciscans   of  Cumand   received  one   day  3 


68  VENEZUELA 

visit  from  a  few  of  the  adventurers  of  Cubagua,  who 
had  previously,  for  obvious  reasons,  ignored  the 
existence  of  the  missionaries.  Notwithstanding,  they 
were  hospitably  treated,  and  entertained  as  well  as 
might  be  by  the  monks  and  their  Indian  friends  for 
several  days  ;  then  the  most  catholic  and  Christian 
conqiiistadores  revealed  themselves  in  their  true 
colours.  The  cacique  of  the  district  (christened  Don 
Alonso  by  the  friars)  was  invited  with  his  family 
to  dine  on  board  ;  he  accepted,  unsuspecting,  and 
found  himself,  his  wife  and  children,  captives  on  a 
ship  making  sail  for  Santo  Domingo.  At  sight  of 
this  treachery,  the  Indians  naturally  seized  the  monks 
as  partly  responsible,  but  acceded  to  their  request 
that  before  taking  summary  vengeance  they  should 
allow  time  for  a  messenger  to  go  to  Hispaniola  and 
return  with  the  cacique  in  safety  ;  for  this  purpose 
four  months  was  granted.  But  justice  in  Santo 
Domingo  was  non-existent,  and  legal  decisions  bought 
and  sold.  The  pleas  of  the  friars  and  their  superiors 
in  the  island  were  of  no  avail,  and  at  the  termination 
of  the  stipulated  period  the  monks  of  Cumana  were 
put  to  death  by  the  mourning  Indians.  The  region 
remained  abandoned  by  Spaniards  till  1 5 1 8,  when 
a  new   Franciscan   community   was    established. 

In  1520  the  Dominicans  of  Chichirivichi,  near 
Barcelona,  also  fell  victims  to  Spanish  treachery  ; 
the  Indians  had  previously  recognised  their  innocence 
of  any  possible  complicity  in  the  Cumand  affair,  but 
their  turn  came  on  this  wise.  One  of  the  Cubagua 
colonists,  Alonso  de  Ojeda,  said  to  have  been  the  un- 
worthy father  of  the  author  of  the  name  Venezuela, 
crossed  to  Chichirivichi,  and  was  well  received 
by  friars  and  Indians  alike.  Being,  like  most  of 
his  confreres,  neither  a  gentleman  himself  nor  able 
to  recognise  one  when  he  met  him,  he  insulted  one 
of  his  hosts,  the  cacique  of  Maraguey,  by  asking 
whether    any   of    his    people    ate    human    flesh  ;    the 


THE    CHAMA    \AI.LEY    AliOVE    MERIDA. 


.MOUNTAIN    STREAM    BETWEEN    CUMANACOA   AND   CUMANA. 


UNDER    SPANISH    RULE  69 

chief  replied  with  some  feeling  that  they  did  not, 
and  withdrew,  recognising  the  motive  of  the  question, 
as  seeking  the  sanction  under  the  codicia  to  enslave 
all  cannibals.  Ojeda  departed,  we  may  believe  un- 
regretted,  and  sailed  along  the  coast  to  Maraca- 
pana,  where  he  was  well  received  by  the  cacique 
(christened  Gil  Gonzalez).  Ojeda  was,  or  pretended  to 
be,  short  of  corn,  and  accordingly  Gonzalez  gave  him 
guides  for  ten  or  twelve  miles  inland  to  enable  him 
to  buy  maize  from  the  Tageres  Indians,  while  these 
lent  him  fifty  men  to  carry  the  grain  to  Maracapana. 
By  way  of  return  for  the  various  favours  received, 
Ojeda 's  men  fell  on  the  porters  as  they  rested  in 
the  market-place  and  carried  them  off  to  the  caravel. 
On  this  occasion  retribution  fell,  in  part  at  least, 
on  the  heads  of  those  who  deserved  it,  for  Ojeda 
landed  again  farther  down  the  coast,  where  Gil 
Gonzalez  met  and  killed  him  with  six  of  his  fellow- 
scoundrels.  Unfortunately,  the  reception  accorded  to 
their  countrymen  by  the  friars  of  Chichirivichi  made 
them  appear  privy  to  the  plot  against  the  Indians, 
and  they,  too,  fell  victims  to  the  vengeance  of 
Maraguey. 

The  Audiencia  Real  of  Hispaniola,  by  way  of 
brazening  out  the  crimes  of  the  Cubaguans,  now  dis- 
patched Gonzalez  de  Ocampo  with  an  armed  force 
to  settle  the  country.  The  leader  of  the  expedition 
appears  to  have  been  temperate  and  wise  in  his  deal- 
ings, and  succeeded  in  establishing  peace,  founding 
a  city  where  Cumand  now  stands  under  the  name 
of  Nueva  Toledo  (1520).  Shortly  afterwards, 
Bartolome  de  las  Casas,  a  noble  figure  in  the  history 
of  the  period,  reached  these  shores,  and  discovering 
for  himself  the  true  history  of  what  had  been 
described  as  unprovoked  attacks  by  the  Indians,  sug- 
gested that  a  fortress  should  be  built  opposite  New 
Toledo,  with  a  garrison  under  such  control  that  it 
should  protect  the  Indians  from  the  lawless  gangs  of 


70  VENEZUELA 

Cubagua,  and  keep  in  check  any  unprovoked  mani- 
festation of  hostility  on  the  part  of  the  natives 
towards  well-intentioned  Spaniards.  As  might  be 
expected,  the  Cubaguans  were  extremely  hostile  to 
such  a  project,  and  so  hampered  Las  Casas  that  he 
resolved  to  return  to  Hispaniola  and  thence  to  Spain, 
to  lay  before  the  authorities  a  true  account  of  the 
condition  of  affairs   in  the  west. 

Francisco  de  Soto  was  left  in  charge  of  affairs  in 
New  Toledo,  and  no  sooner  was  the  good  influence 
of  Las  Casas  withdrawn  than  he  recommenced  the 
slave  traffic,  which  had  been  the  cause  of  all  the 
previous  trouble,  and  now  resulted  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  new  city  after  the  massacre  of  inhabi- 
tants and  missionaries  and  an  invasion  of  Cubagua 
by  the  Indians  of  the  mainland.  A  second  semi- 
military  expedition  from  Hispaniola  in  1521,  under 
the  leadership  of  Jacome  Castellon,  built  the  castle 
of  Araya  in  spite  of  the  Cubaguans,  and  founded  the 
city  of  la  gloriosa  Santa  Ines  de  Nueva  Cordoba, 
the  modern  Cumana.  The  fortress  was  reduced  to 
ruins  by  an  earthquake  in    1530. 

In  the  meantime,  orders  had  been  received  from 
Spain  to  name  the  already  existing  city  on  Cubagua, 
Nueva  Cadiz,  and  three  years  later,  in  1524,  La 
Asuncion  was  founded  on  the  island  of  Margarita, 
while  in  1527  the  inhabitants  of  New  Cadiz  received 
the  right  to  elect  annually  an  alcalde,  the  Emperor 
giving  500  pesos  for  rebuilding  the  church  there. 
Thus  we  have  three  cities  founded  in  Venezuela 
territory  within  the  first  twenty-five  years  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

With  the  year  1527  the  history  of  Venezuela  as 
a  colony,  or  rather  a  group  of  colonies,  under  Spanish 
dominion,  may  be  said  to  commence.  ,We  have 
already  seen  a  form  of  government  established  in 
Cubagua,  which  for  a  time  appears  to  have  existed 
more    or    less     irregularly    apart     from     the    other 


UNDER    SPANISH    RULE  71 

provinces  into  which  Venezuela,  with  Trinidad,  was 
shortly  divided,  namely,  Nueva  Andalusia  in  the  east, 
Venezuela  or  Coro  in  the  west,  and  Trinidad  and 
the  Orinoco  in  the  south. 

Attracted  by  the  reports  of  the  first  expedition, 
various  merchants  and  adventurers  had  settled  in 
the  Coro  country,  and  lived  on  good  terms  with 
the  Caiquetia  nation  of  Indians.  Now,  however,  some 
of  these  colonists,  losing  taste  for  a  civilised  life, 
made  attempts  to  commence  the  nefarious  trade  which 
was  at  that  time  disgracing  all  the  countries  of  the 
Old  World  in  Africa  and  America.  Having  learned 
wisdom  from  the  disasters  in  Nueva  Andalusia,  the 
audience  of  Santo  Domingo  dispatched  a  splendid 
man  in  Juan  de  Ampies  to  nip  the  evil  in  the  bud  ; 
as  a  first  step  he  founded  the  city  of  Santa  Ana  de 
Coro  on  that  Saint's  day  in  1527,  and  in  his  admin- 
istration sought  steadily  to  foster  the  spirit  of  amity 
between  the  Caiquetias  (under  their  cacique 
Manaure)  and  the  Europeans.  His  good  work  was 
soon,  however,  destined  to  be  ignored  and  frustrated 
by  the  selfish  policy  of  the  King  of  Spain. 

Charles  V.  had  at  various  times  raised  heavy  loans 
from  the  Welser^  the  bankers  of  Augsburg,  and  now 
in  part  payment  he  handed  over  to  them  the  admin- 
istration and  exploitation  of  the  newly-acquired 
province  of  Venezuela.  Ambrosius  Alfinger  was  ap- 
pointed first  Governor  of  Coro,  with  jurisdiction  over 
all  the  country  between  the  Gulf  of  Coquibacoa  and 
the  western  end  of  the  Peninsula  of  Paria.  He 
arrived  at  the  seat  of  his  government  with  three 
hundred  Spaniards,  many  of  them  of  noble  blood, 
and  fifty  German  miners,  and  found  Juan  de  Ampies 
too  patriotic  to  raise  difficulties  on  account  of  the 
ingratitude  of  a  worthless  king.  The  man  who  had 
founded  Coro  and  started  administration  on  sound 
lines  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days  in  retirement 
in  Santo  Domingo,  though  at  a  later  date  the  barren 


72  VENEZUELA 

island  of  Curagao  was  given  to  him  as  some  return 
for  his  services. 

The  following  year  saw  Nueva  Andalusia  con- 
stituted a  definite  province,  under  Don  Diego  de 
Ordaz  as  first  Governor,  who  was  given  authority 
to  explore  and  conquer  all  the  territory  to  the  south. 
Sedeno  was  appointed  Governor  of  Trinidad,  but  as 
yet  the  Orinoco  region  was  ignored  or  by  implica- 
tion included  in  New  Andalusia,  and  it  was  therefore 
Ordaz  who,  upon  his  arrival,  journeyed  up  the 
Orinoco  as  far  as  the  rapids  of  Carichana,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Meta,  where  he  heard  stories  of  the 
gold  and  emeralds  to  be  found  in  the  country  whence 
that  river  flowed.  The  success  of  the  voyage  proved 
his  death,  however,  for  Sedeno  was  jealous  of  his 
fame  and  in  league  with  Matienza,  then  commander- 
in-chief  in  Cubagua,  managed  to  poison  Ordaz  in 
Nueva  Cadiz  on  his  return. 

In  the  west  Alfinger  undertook  a  long  journey 
of  discovery  towards  what  is  now  Colombia,  and  in 
his  greed  for  gold  and  precious  stones  committed 
all  manner  of  atrocities  on  the  Indians  who  had 
none,  or  who  refused  to  be  robbed.  Making  a  per- 
manent camp  in  the  country  to  the  west  of  the  Lake 
of  Maracaibo,  after  founding  the  city  of  that  name  in 
1529,  he  sent  a  party  of  Spaniards  and  Germans  to 
Coro  for  fresh  supplies  and  reinforcements.  The 
party  lost  themselves  in  the  forest-clad  mountains 
at  the  south  end  of  the  lake,  and  in  their  privations 
some  of  the  members  turned  cannibals,  killing  and 
eating  their  Indian  servants.  Apparently  the  taste 
for  human  flesh,  once  acquired,  was  not  easily  over- 
come, for  the  survivors,  when  given  food  by  some 
Indians  on  the  banks  of  the  Chama,  fell  upon  their 
benefactors  and  devoured  them  1  The  few  that 
reached  Coro  found  that  Alfinger  had  been  killed 
in  his  camp  in  1531,  and  his  expedition  had  accom- 
plished nothing  beyond  outraging  the  Indians. 


UNDER    SPANISH    RULE  73 

Georg  von  Speyer  (Jorge  de  Spira)  was  the  next 
Governor,  appointed  in  1533,  and  with  him  came 
Alonso  de  Pacheco,  and  ancestors  of  many  of  the 
modem  Venezuelan  families.  Before  his  death,  in 
I  540,  von  Speyer  and  his  equally  energetic  lieutenant, 
Nicolaus  Federmann,  carried  out  extensive  journeys 
in  western  and  southern  Venezuela,  and  the  former 
reached  the  banks  of  the  Guaviare,  which  were  never 
again  visited  by  Europeans  until  the  middle  of  the 
nineteeth  century.  In  the  meantime  Coro  was  made 
the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  Don  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas 
arrived  as  first  occupant  of  the  see  in  1536.  The 
Bishop  acted  as  interim  Governor  after  Speyer's 
death  until  the  new  Governor,  Philip  von  Huten 
(Felipe  de  Urre),  arrived  in  1541.  The  latter  also 
made  extensive  journeys  into  the  Llanos  in  search  of 
El  Dorado,  but  was  killed  in  1545  by  Juan  de  Carva- 
jal,  the  founder  of  Nuestra  Senora  de  la  Concepcion 
de  el  Tocuyo.  With  his  death  the  rule  of  the  Welsers 
practically  came  to  an  end,  though  the  King  of  Spain 
only  finally  removed  all  claim  to  power  on  their  part 
in  1558.  Their  energy  in  exploration  is  indisputable, 
but  their  dominion  was  marked  throughout  by  cruelty 
and  extravagance. 

In  Nueva  Andalusia  the  new  Governor  after  Ordaz, 
Geronimo  Ortal,  and  after  him  Sedeno,  Governor  of 
Trinidad,  were  also  exploring  the  Llanos  and  endea- 
vouring to  settle  that  region,  but  the  previous  evil 
deeds  of  the  Cubaguans  had  made  the  task  very 
difficult,  if  not  impossible.  Before  long  these  received 
a  just  reward  for  their  crimes,  in  a  succession  of 
natural  catastrophes,  which  ultimately  drove  the 
remnant  from  the  island.  In  1530  an  earthquake 
shook  the  town  and  destroyed  many  buildings,  not 
without  loss  of  life,  and  in  1543  earthquake  and 
hurricane  together  wrought  so  much  havoc  to  life 
and  property  that  only  a  few  lingered  on,  persisting 
in  the  slave  trade,  for  which  New  Cadiz  was  notorious, 


74  VENEZUELA 

until  at  last  the  population  decreased  to  nil  in  1550  ; 
even  the  exact  site  of  the  city  is  now  unknown.  One 
important  man  appears  on  the  scene  from  Margarita, 
about  1555,  in  Francisco  Faxardo,  the  son  of  a 
Spaniard  of  noble  birth  who  had  wedded  a  princess 
of  the  Guaiquerias.  Crossing  to  the  coasts  of  the 
Caracas,  he  established  friendly  relations  with  the 
Teques  and  other  Indians,  and  in  i  560  built  the  Villa 
de  San  Francisco,  approximately  where  the  capital 
of  Venezuela  now  stands,  together  with  the  Villa 
de  El  Collado  (Pablo  Collado  being  the  Governor 
in  Coro),  afterwards  Caraballeda,  about  eight  miles 
east  of  La  Guaira. 

Under  the  Spanish  Governors  who  succeeded  the 
Welsers,  the  already  evident  tendency  to  leave  the 
barren  plains  of  Coro  for  the  more  fruitful  terri- 
tory to  the  east  and  south  became  more  marked. 
Merida  had  been  founded  in  1542,  Borburata  (Puerto 
Cabello)  in  1549,  Nueva  Segovia  (Barquisimeto)  in 
1552,  and  Nueva  Valencia,  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Tacarigua,  in  1555,  with  Trujillo  in  1556,  while 
the  mines  of  San  Felipe  and  Nirgua  had  been  known 
and  worked  for  some  years. 

In  1 561  occurred  the  rebellion  of  the  mad 
*'  traitor  "  Lope  de  Aguirre.  After  journeying  down 
the  Amazon  from  Peru,  he  sailed  up  to  Margarita,  and 
there  robbed  the  treasury.  With  his  booty  he  crossed 
to  Borburata,  sacked  the  port,  and  climbed  the 
mountain  road  to  Valencia,  from  which  town  he  wrote 
his  famous  letter  to  Philip  II.  In  this  he  upbraided 
the  monarch  for  his  lack  of  practical  interest  in  the 
colonists'  welfare,  in  lands  won  by  Spaniards  for 
his  father,  while  the  latter  lived  at  his  ease  in  Castile  ; 
the  officials  and  priests  sent  out  to  guide  them  sought, 
he  said,  only  their  own  ends.  The  monkish  historian 
Oviedo  y  Banos,  incensed  by  the  reference  to  the 
laziness  of  the  Churchmen,  calls  him  aquel  bruto 
("  that  brute  "),  but  it  is  probable  that  most  of  his 


UNDER    SPANISH    RULE  75 

complaints  were  fully  justilied,  though  he  was  hardly 
fitted  to  found  a  new  and  better  order  of  things. 
He  marched  on  Barquisimeto  and  took  it,  and, 
hearing  that  the  Governor  was  approaching  with 
troops  from  the  direction  of  Tocuyo,  wrote  him  a 
letter,  the  humour  of  which  can  best  be  appreciated 
after  reading  the  early  writers'  accounts  of  the 
poltroonery  of  Pablo  Collado,  for  which  he  was  sub- 
sequently deposed  by  the  Audience  of  Santo 
Domingo. 

The  letter  opens  :  "  May  magnifico  SeFior, — Eiitre 
otros  pa  poles  que  de  V .  md.  en  este  Pueblo  se  hari 
hallado,  estaba  una  carta  suya  a  mi  dirigida,  con 
mas  ofrecimientos,  y  preambulos,  que  Estreilas  ay  en 
el  Cielo:'  » 

These  offers  he  rejects  because,  he  says,  he  has 
thrown  off  his  allegiance  to  Spain  and  therefore  needs 
no  pardon  for  rebellion  ;  then  he  closes  with  the 
sarcastic  farewell  : — 

"  Nuestro  Sehor  la  may  magnifica  persona  de  V . 
md.  guarde, 

"  Su  Servidor, 

"  Lope  de  Aguirre."  2 

The  Governor  wept  with  vexation  on  reading  this 
epistle,  and,  after  the  manner  of  men  of  his  stamp, 
said  what  he  would  do  to  Aguirre,  were  they  able  to 
fight  the  matter  out  in  single  combat.  Meanwhile  the 
troops  surprised  and  took  the  town  from  the  rebel, 
who  fled  towards  San  Felipe.  He  met  his  daughter 
there,  and  killed  her  to  save  her  from  the  disgrace 

■  "Most  magnificent  Sir,  —  Among  other  papers  of  your 
worship's  found  in  this  city,  there  was  a  letter  addressed  to  me, 
with  more  offers  and  preambles  than  there  are  stars  in  the  sky." 

-  "  Our  Lord  protect  the  most  magnificent  person  of  your 
worship, 

"  Your  servant, 

"Lope  de  Aguirre." 


76  VENEZUELA 

she  might  expect  as  the  child  of  "  the  traitor." 
Oviedo  y  Baaos  declaims  at  length  against  the 
mm-der  as  the  crowning  act  of  cruelty  of  his  life, 
but  while  he  was  undoubtedly  guilty  during  his 
career  of  many  acts  of  wild  savagery,  this  final  deed 
seems  to  an  unbiased  mind  to  be  creditable  rather 
than  otherwise.  Be  that  as  it  may,  he  was  captured 
and  killed,  and  his  body  was  quartered  and  thrown 
to  the  dogs  on  the  various  roads  leading  away  from 
Barquisimeto. 

Whether  as  a  result  of  Aguirre's  protest  or  no, 
it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  in  1564  Philip  II.  took 
steps  to  adequately  reward  one  man  who  had  worked 
to  develop  his  Caribbean  colonies,  in  conferring  upon 
Faxardo  the  title  of  Don,  and  offering  him  the 
governorship  of  the  lands  he  had  been  so  instru- 
mental in  opening  to  commerce.  Unfortunately, 
before  the  messenger  arrived,  Faxardo  had  been 
treacherously  killed  by  Cobos,  alcalde  of  Cumana, 
who  was  jealous  of  his  exploits  in  the  west. 

The  work  of  this  first  traveller  in  the  Caracas  was 
not  entirely  lost,  however,  for  three  years  later,  during 
the  governorship  of  Don  Diego  Ponce  de  Leon, 
Diego  de  Losada,  a  native  of  Tocuyo,  travelled  across 
through  Villa  Rica  (Nirgua)  to  the  Llanos,  where 
his  efforts,  in  spite  of  many  battles  with  the  Indians, 
were  directed  rather  towards  settlement  than  con- 
quest. Returned  to  the  Villa  de  San  Francisco  (of 
Faxardo),  he  founded  there — presumably  in  the  latter 
part  of  1567,  though,  strangely  enough,  the  exact 
date  is  not  recorded— the  city  of  Santiago  de  Leon 
de  Caracas.  As  he  had  on  his  travels  adopted  San 
Sebastian  as  his  patron  and  protector  against  the 
poisoned  arrows  of  the  Indians,  that  saint's  day  has 
been  celebrated  in  a  special  manner  in  Cardcas  since 
its    foundation. 

Ten  years  later  Don  Juan  Pimentel,  the  newly 
appointed   Governor,   moved   his   seat   from   Coro   to 


UNDER    SPANISH    RULE  77 

Caracas,  and  that  city  has  remained  since,  with  one 
short  break,  the  capital  of  Venezuela.  For  some 
years  at  this  time  there  seems  to  have  been  no 
Governor  of  Nueva  Andalusia,  and  a  captain  of  con- 
siderable energy  and  tact,  named  Garcia-Gonzalez, 
was  dispatched  by  Pimentel  to  settle  the  countries 
near  the  boundaries  of  the  two  provinces. 

Caracas  is  splendidly  situated  for  defence,  the 
steep  range  of  the  coast  making  a  natural  5,000-foot 
rampart  against  invaders  from  the  sea.  It  was  taken 
once,  however,  and  the  story  of  its  capture  has,  for 
some  reason,  been  wrongly  described  by  nearly  every 
writer  on  Venezuela,  though  Kingsley's  reference  in 
"  Westward  Ho  !  "  avoids  the  current  inaccuracies. 
Generally  it  is  briefly  stated  that  Drake,  or  El  Draque, 
took  the  city  at  the  beginning  of  June,  1595  ;  but 
Sir  Francis  was  then  in  England  preparing  for  what 
proved  to  be  his  last  voyage,  during  which  he  died 
at  sea  ofl"  Porto  Bello  in  Panama,  a  place  confused 
by  an  American  writer  on  Venezuela  with  Puerto 
Cabello.  The  true  account  may  be  read  in  Hakluyt's 
"  Voyages  "  as  it  was  given  by  one  of  the  members  of 
the  party. 

Briefly,  Captain  (afterwards  Sir  Amyas)  Preston 
and  Captain  Sommers,  after  putting  Cumana  to 
ransom,  landed  on  the  Caracas  coast  and  captured 
a  small  fort,  presumably  near  Naiguatd.  Finding 
the  Governor  of  the  fort  asleep  in  the  forest,  they 
learned  that  the  inhabitants  of  Caracas  had  heard 
of  the  arrival  of  the  corsairs,  and  were  preparing 
to  meet  them  on  the  main  road  over  the  mountains 
from  La  Guaira.  The  fugitive,  whose  name  is  given 
as  Villalpando,  was  induced  to  act  as  guide  along  the 
"  Indian  Way  "  to  the  city,  which  Preston  entered 
on  May  29th,  after  a  difficult  journey  through  forests 
and  over  mountains.  The  only  Spaniard  found  in 
the  place  was  an  old  gentleman,  Don  Alonso  Andrea 
de  Ledesma,  who  gallantly  tried  to  repel  the  invaders 


78  VENEZUELA 

single-handed.  The  Englishmen  had  orders  to  spare 
him  for  his  chivalry,  but  his  refusal  to  accept  defeat 
led  to  his  death,  and  he  was  interred  with  honour  by 
his  foes.  Meanwhile  messengers  were  carrying  the 
news  to  the  troops  in  the  pass  on  the  La  Guaira 
road,  who  returned  to  find  such  valuables  as  they 
had  left  in  the  city  gone  with  the  invaders  by  the 
supposedly  unknown  Indian  way.  Preston  continued 
his  way  to  Coro,  found  nothing  there  and  burned  the 
town,  and  finally  returned  to  England  on  Septem- 
ber  lo,    1595. 

Here  we  must  go  back  for  a  year  or  two  to  follow 
the  course  of  events  in  the  east  and  south.  In  1591 
Don  Antonio  de  Berrio  y  Orufia  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Trinidad  and  the  Orinoco,  and  very 
shortly  after  his  arrival  he  gave  evidence  of  his 
energetic  spirit  by  crossing  to  the  mainland  and 
founding  there  the  city  of  San  Thome  de  la  Guayana, 
east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Caroni,  where  the  castle  of 
Guayana  Vieja  stands  to  this  day.'  In  1595  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  first  visited  these  regions  of  Guayana 
or  Guiana,  described  so  fully  in  his  famous  book. 
On  his  way  he  took  Berrio  prisoner  in  Trinidad, 
but  afterwards  released  him. 

Both  men,  clever  and  energetic  as  they  were, 
rapidly  became  fascinated  by  the  stories  of  Manoa, 
the  city  of  El  Dorado,  which  were  being  handed 
on  from  one  narrator  to  another,  and  losing  nothing 
by  repetition  ;  the  fabled  wealth  of  the  Golden  Inca 
was  eventually  the  cause  of  the  death  of  both.  In 
1 61 5  Berrio  led  an  expedition  southward  from  San 
Thome,  but  he  at  length  returned  unsuccessful,  with 
only  thirty  of  his  three  hundred  men,  and  himself  died 
of  fever  shortly  afterwards.  His  son,  Don  Fernando 
de  Berrio,  took  charge  temporarily,  but  was  soon 
removed  to  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota,  as  Viceroy  of  the 

'  As  usual,  the  second  part  of  the  original  title  was  the  name,  or 
supposed  name,  of  the  local  Indians. 


UNDER    SPANISH    RULE  79 

New  Kingdom  of  Granada,  into  which  Venezuela  was 
now  incorporated. 

Raleigh's  final  expedition  in  1618  captured  the 
fortress  of  San  Thom6,  but  this  and  other  encounters 
with  the  Spanish  colonists,  who,  owing  to  a  mis- 
understanding, appear  to  have  commenced  the 
attacks,  led  to  his  execution  by  the  poltroon 
James  I.  to  appease  the  wrath  of  Spain.  Thus 
the  fable  of  Manoa  remained  alive  for  two  centuries 
more   till  finally  exposed  by   Humboldt. 

The  province  of  Venezuela  by  this  time  was  com- 
pletely conquered,  but  New  Andalusia,  or  Cumana, 
which  again  had  a  Governor  of  its  own,  still  continued 
to  be  the  scene  of  strife  ;  and  Vides,  as  Governor, 
did  not  improve  matters  by  his  encouragement  of 
the  slave  trade.  At  length,  in  1652,  the  suggestion 
of  one  Francisco  Rodriguez  Liete  to  the  bishops  of 
Puerto  Rico,  made  four  years  previously,  was  adopted, 
and  all  military  operations  against  the  Indians  were 
forbidden,  with  a  view  to  carrying  out  organised 
attempts  to  civilise  them  through  the  missions,  and 
in  1656  a  station  was  again  founded  at  Barcelona 
by  Franciscan  monks.  As  an  indication  of  the 
success  of  these  new  methods  it  may  be  observed 
that  within  150  years  (before  1799)  the  Franciscans 
founded  38  towns  with  25,000  Indian  inhabitants, 
while  the  previous  equal  period  of  aggression  and 
oppression  had  effected  no  settlement  of  a  lasting 
nature.  In  1686  missions  were  established  round 
Cumana  and  south  of  the  Delta  by  the  Capuchins, 
while  the  Jesuits  undertook  to  civilise  the  Orinoco. 
The  latter  were  obliged  on  account  of  ill-health  to 
abandon  their  first  stations  within  a  very  short  time, 
but  returned  again  in  1725  to  meet  with  increased 
success.  The  inhuman  cruelty  which  their  creed 
allowed  some  of  them  to  practise  towards  the  pagan 
Indians  undid  much  of  the  good  they  may  have  at 
first  accomplished,  and  in  the  nineteenth  century  their 


80  VENEZUELA 

missions  became  deserted,  with  one  or  two  excep- 
tions, while  the  last  of  the  missionaries  after  the 
revolution  seem  to  have  been  as  licentious  and  lazy 
as  their  predecessors  had  been  cruel  and  energetic. 

The  founding  of  the  University  of  Caracas  by 
Philip  V.  in  1721  seemed  to  promise  development 
of  the  colony  on  sound  lines,  but  three  years  later 
a  monopoly  of  trade  was  granted  to  the  Compaiiia 
Guipuzcoana,  a  step  which  probably  did  more  than 
any  other  single  act  to  bring  about  disaffection 
towards  Spain.  The  province  was  separated  from 
New  Granada  in  1731,  when  the  whole  of  what  is 
now  Venezuela  (with  the  exception  of  the  Maracaibo 
region,  incorporated  in  1777)  was  included  in  a  new 
Capitanla-General  of  that  name.  The  first  Captain- 
General  was  Colonel  Don  Sebastian  Garcia  de  la 
Torre. 

As  a  result  of  the  evident  discontent  among  the 
colonists  the  privileges  of  the  Guipuzcoana  Company 
were  taken  away  from  them  in  1778,  but  the  dis- 
regard by  the  mother  country  of  Venezuela's  best 
interests  could  not  be  atoned  for  by  a  negative  act 
only,  and  nineteen  years  later,  in  1797,  occurred  the 
first  definite  attempt  at  revolt.  Under  the  influence 
of  the  French  Revolution,  some  of  the  colonists 
banded  themselves  together  with  the  purpose  of  form- 
ing an  independent  Republic  of  Venezuela  ;  the 
leading  spirits  appear  to  have  been  Don  Manuel  Gual 
and  Don  Jose  Maria  Espaiia,  but  one  of  the  other 
leaders  in  his  zeal  to  multiply  adherents  disclosed 
the  schemes  to  his  barber,  who  straightway  com- 
municated the  fact  to  the  authorities,  Carbonell  being 
Captain-General.  Six  of  the  leaders  were  hanged, 
drawn,  and  quartered,  many  having  voluntarily  given 
themselves  up  as  their  best  hope  of  safety.  Gual 
and  Espafia  fled,  but  the  latter,  returning  from 
Trinidad  in  1799  to  visit  his  wife  in  La  Guaira, 
was  captured,  executed^  and  his  body  mutilated   by 


UNDER    SPANISH    RULE  81 

order  of  the  new  Captain-General,  Manuel  Guevara 
Vasconcelos. 

The  revolution  of  Gual  and  Espana  thus  being 
ended,  nothing  of  special  note  occurred  in  Venezuela 
for  six  years,  but  in  the  meantime  a  Venezuelan,  Don 
Francisco  Miranda,  who  had  relations  in  Europe  and 
had  travelled  in  many  lands,  fighting  in  the  American 
War  of  Independence,  and  for  France  in  the  wars 
with  Prussia  in  1792-5,  was  conferring  with  Pitt  in 
England.  From  the  British  statesman  he  obtained 
promises  of  help,  but  finally  got  practical  assistance 
in  America,  and  at  last  invaded  the  colony  at  Ocumare 
on  March  25,  1806.  Vasconcelos  had  been  warned 
of  his  arrival,  and  repulsed  him  without  difficulty  ; 
Miranda  retired  toJ[rinidad,  but  continued  to  work 
for  his  purpose  there,  and  made  an  unsuccessful 
landing  in  Coro  some  five  months  later.  His  re- 
sources were  exhausted,  however,  and  he  finally 
returned   to   Trinidad   and   thence   to   Europe. 

In  the  following  year  Vasconcelos  died,  and  the 
interim  Captain,  Juan  de  las  Casas,  recognised  Prince 
Murat  as  regent  in  place  of  Charles  IV.,  the  Prince's 
commissioners  reaching  La  Guaira  in  July,  1808. 
The  colonists,  however,  compelled  him  to  swear 
allegiance  to  Prince  Ferdinand  as  Ferdinand  VII., 
then  captive  in  Bayorme.  In  May  of  the  following 
year  Vicente  Emparan  arrived  as  new  Captain- 
General,  appointed  by  the  Supreme  Junta  of  Spain, 
but  finding  the  people  unwilling  to  acknowledge  that 
authority,  he  was  easily  led  by  Madariaga,  a  Chilian, 
then  canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Caracas,  to  appeal  to 
them  as  to  whether  they  wished  him  to  carry  out 
his  duties  as  Governor.  It  is  said  that  Emparan 
came  out  on  a  balcony  to  put  the  question  to  the 
crowd,  and  Madariaga,  behind  him,  signed  to  them 
to  reply  to  him  in  the  negative,  "  No  lo  queremos  " 
("  We  do  not  wish  it  "),  in  answer  to  which  Emparan 
said,  "  Vo  tampoco  qalero  mandar  "  ("  Nor  do  I 
6 


82  VENEZUELA 

wish  to  command  "),  and  so  retired  from  the 
captaincy,  which  he  was  the  last  to  fill.  He  was 
finally  deposed  by  a  local  Junta  formed  to  act  in 
the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII.  on  April   19,   18 10. 

While  this  new  Government  had  sworn  allegiance 
to  the  rightful  occupant  of  the  throne  of  Spain,  it 
was  inevitable,  in  view  of  the  disturbed  state  of  that 
country  and  the  insecurity  of  the  reigning  dynasty, 
that  sooner  or  later  the  colonies  would  break  away, 
completely.  The  Junta  sent  Simon  Bolivar  to 
England  to  appeal  for  protection  and  to  ask  the 
Government  to  urge  Spain  to  avoid  war  with  the 
colonists.  Our  statesmen,  however,  were  not  then 
able  to  resist  the  temptation  to  secure  the  utmost 
from  Venezuela  in  return  for  such  passive  assistance 
as  they  might  render,  even  to  the  point  of  asking 
for  a  monopoly  of  trade,  and  negotiations  fell 
through.  Spain  declared  Venezuela  under  blockade 
conditionally,  and  appointed  Miyares,  Governor  of 
Maracaibo,  to  be  Captain-General,  an  office  which 
he  never  filled. 

Later  Miranda  returned  from  Europe,  being  sent 
by  Bolivar,  and  was  refused  a  landing  by  the  Junta, 
in  view  of  his  avowed  republican  principles.  The 
people  of  La  Guaira,  however,  insisted  on  his  landing 
and  brought  him  ashore. 

In  1 8 1  I  forty-four  deputies  were  elected  by  the 
seven  provinces  which  recognised  the  Junta  (Caracas, 
Barinas,  Barcelona,  Cumana,  Margarita,  Merida,  and 
Trujillo),  and  they  met  on  March  2nd.  The  names 
of  the  first  Congress  of  Venezuela  (as  it  subsequently 
became)  included,  besides  Miranda,  the  Marquis  del 
Toro,  Martin  Tovar,  Fernando  de  Peiialver,  and  many 
gentlemen  of  rank  and  standing  in  the  colony, 
Miranda  was  elected  President  of  the  Junta,  and 
the  combined  effect  of  the  inaction  of  Miyares,  a 
man  of  more  vanity  than  talent,  and  such  incidents 
as    the   massacre    of    persons    of    republican    inclina- 


UNDER    SPANISH    RULE  83 

tions  by  royalists  in  Cabruta  on  April  2nd,  led 
finally  to  the  Declaration  of  Independence  by  the 
deputies  on  July  5,  181  i. 

The  seven  provinces  were  declared  to  be  a  con- 
federation of  free,  sovereign,  and  independent  States, 
governed  in  accordance  with  the  will  of  the  in- 
habitants, and  thus  ended,  in  name  at  least,  the  long 
period  of  Spain's  misrule.  From  this  time  onward, 
whatever  has  been  the  internal  policy  of  the  country, 
the  inhabitants,  in  theory  if  not  in  fact,  have  had  the 
government   they  chose   for   themselves. 


CHAPTER    V 

THE    REPUBLIC,    1811-1911 

Local  character  of  revolution — Declaration  of  a  Constitution — 
Centralised  government — Troubles  of  the  young  republic — The 
Church  and  the  patriots — Miranda — Dictatorship  and  downfall 
—  Drastic  measures  of  Monteverde — Youth  and  parentage  of 
Simon  Bolivar — The  guerra  a  muerte — Dictatorship  of  Bolivar — 
Monteverde  murders  four  prisoners — The  Mestizos — Massacre  of 
Spaniards  —  Murmurings  —  Retirement  of  Bolivar  —  Royalist 
victories  and  reinforcements — Morillo's  barbarities— Return  of 
Bolivar  to  Venezuela — Indecisive  campaign — Renewed  discon- 
tent—  Bolivar  withdraws  to  Haiti,  but  returns  —  Mariiio's 
insubordination  —  Massacre  of  Barcelona  —Campaign  in  the 
Llanos — Arrival  of  the  British  Legion — Congress  of  Angostura 
— The  march  to  Bogota — The  republic  of  Great  Colombia — 
Change  of  allegiance  of  the  Mestizos — Armistice  of  Trujillo — 
Negotiations  with  Spain — Recommencement  of  hostilities — 
Battle  of  Carabobo — End  of  Spanish  power  in  Venezuela — 
Position  of  Venezuela  in  Colombia — Separatist  movement — 
Death  of  Bolivar — Paez  first  President  of  Venezuela — Vargas 
— Folly  of  Marino — Progress  of  the  country — Public  honours  to 
Bolivar — Recognition  of  republic  by  France  and  Spain— Com- 
merce and  prosperity  of  the  country  —  Tyranny  of  Tadeo 
Monagas  —  Gregorio  Monagas  —  Abolition  of  slavery  —  Re- 
volution of  Julian  Castro  —  Capital  temporarily  removed  to 
Valencia — Federalists  and  Centralists — Falcon — Convenio  de 
Coche — Federal  Constitution — Guzman  Blanco — Development 
under  his  government — Revolution  of  Crespo — British  Guiana 
boundary  dispute— Cipriano  Castro — The  Matos  revolution — 
Coup  d'etat  oi  General  Gomez — Centenary  celebrations — Present 
prospects. 

Even  though  subsequent  events  proved  that  the 
Declaration  of  July  5,  181  i,  marked  in  reality 
the  beginning  of  the  independence  of  Venezuela,  that 


THE    REPUBLIC,    1811-1911  85 

end  was  far  from  being  attained  as  yet.  The  revolu- 
tion itself  had  begun,  not  amongst  the  people  but 
with  a  few  of  the  more  intelligent  and  patriotic 
members  of  the  aristocracy  of  the  country  ;  and 
even  the  open  breach  with  Spain  found  popular 
feeling  about  equally  divided,  or,  if  anything,  on 
the  side  of  Spain  and  the  royalists.  While  the 
movement  had  thus  little  staying  power  within 
the  colony,  there  were  many  foreign  sympathisers, 
notable  amongst  whom  was  William  Burke,  an  Irish 
Catholic. 

The  Declaration  of  Independence  was  followed 
almost  immediately  by  disturbances  in  Los  Teques 
and  Valencia,  instigated  mainly  by  colonists  from  the 
Canary  Islands  ;  but  though  the  provinces  of  Coro, 
Maracaibo,  and  Guayana  held  aloof,  the  leaders  of 
the  Revolution  were  sufficiently  strong  to  declare  a 
Constitution  on  December   21,    181 1. 

One  of  the  main  features  of  this  first  Constitution 
was  the  power  given  to  the  Central  Government  to 
revise  the  Constitutions  of  the  provinces.  The 
national  power  was  divided  under  three  heads; — • 
Legislative,  Executive,  and  Judicial.  The  Legisla- 
ture was  to  consist  of  two  Chambers — one  of  Repre- 
sentatives, the  other  of  Senators,  the  first  to  be 
elected  by  popular  vote,  the  second  by  the  Provincial 
Governments  ;  the  qualifications  for  membership  of 
the  Lower  Chamber  were  :  to  be  over  twenty-one 
years  of  age,  five  years  a  citizen,  and  a  property- 
owner  ;  the  Senators  were  to  be  over  thirty  years  of 
age,  ten  years  citizens,  and  to  possess  6,000  pesos. 
A  National  Guard  was  provided,  to  be  controlled  by 
the  Legislature.  The  Executive  was  vested  in  a  Junta 
of  three  persons,  who  were  to  have  been  in  Venezuela 
on  July  5th  or  to  be  natives  of  the  "  Colombian 
Continent  "  {i.e.,  South  America)  ;  they  held  office 
for  four  years.  Judicial  power  was  exercised  by  a 
Supreme     Court,     subaltern     Courts,     and     infedor 


86  VENEZUELA 

tribunals,  under  control  of  Congress.  The  royalists 
who  had  been  responsible  for  the  risings  in  Valencia 
were  pardoned  and  released. 

In  1812  the  troubles  of  the  young  republic  began. 
Early  in  the  year.  Don  Domingo  de  Monteverde 
landed  in  Coro  and  marched  inland,  capturing  Siqui- 
sique  and  Carora,  finally  directing  his  steps  towards 
Caracas  via  Barquisimeto  and  San  Carlos.  On  Holy 
Thursday  (March  26th),  while  thousands  were 
gathered  in  the  churches,  a  terrible  earthquake 
destroyed  Caracas,  La  Guaira,  San  Felipe,  Barquisi- 
meto, Tocuyo,  and  Merida  ;  in  Caracas  alone  10,000 
people  were  killed.  The  ecclesiastics,  recognising, 
their  interests  to  be  largely  bound  up  with  the  royalist 
cause,  attributed  these  disasters  to  the  wrath  of 
Heaven  at  the  revolution,  and  one  who  preached  in 
this  strain  in  Caracas  is  said  to  have  been  threatened 
with  death  by  Bolivar,  who  exclaimed,  "  If  Nature 
opposes  us  we  will  fight  her  and  make  her  obey 
us  1  "  For  his  antagonism  to  the  new  regime  the 
Archbishop  of  Caracas  was  expelled  and  Madariaga 
put  in  charge  in  his  place.  An  expedition  to 
Guayana  had  been  planned,  but  was  abandoned  after 
the  earthquake,  when  Miranda  was  made  Dictj,tor 
by  Congress.  The  royalist  leader  Monteverde 
reached  La  Victoria  in  June,  and  some  four  weeks 
later,  for  obscure  and,  it  was  widely  suggested,  dis- 
creditable pecuniary  reasons,  Miranda,  with  4,000 
men,  capitulated  to  the  Spanish  force  of  3,000  on 
July  25th.  Monteverde  sent  him  to  Puerto  Rico, 
but  for  which  Bolivar  and  others  would  have  shot 
him  as  a  traitor  at  the  first  opportunity.  He  finally 
died  in  prison  in  Spain  in   181 6. 

Had  Monteverde  shown  more  discretion  and  mercy 
this  reverse  of  the  patriots  would  probably  have  had 
far  more  lasting  results,  but  he  speedily  showed  him- 
self treacherous,  and,  in  direct  violation  of  the  terms 
agreed    upon    with    Miranda,    he    sent    eight    of    the 


THE   REPUBLIC,    1811-1911  87 

revolutionary  leaders,  including  Madariaga,  to  Spain. 
He  imprisoned  1,500  more,  and,  refusing  to  apply 
any  part  of  the  new  Spanish  Constitution  to  Vene- 
zuela, proclaimed  martial  law  ;  as  a  result,  war  to 
the  death  was  declared  by  the  patriots  in  the 
following  year. 

The  Simon  Bolivar  who  has  been  referred  to  above 
was  the  direct  descendant,  six  generations  removed, 
from  Simon  de  Bolivar,  a  Biscayan  of  noble  rank 
who  reached  Venezuela  in  1588.  This  man  entered 
the  service  of  his  adopted  land  immediately  upon 
his  arrival,  for  he  was  the  special  commissioner 
dispatched  in  1589  by  the  then  Governor  to  Spain 
to  urge  the  need  of  reforms  and  to  obtain  permission 
for  the  initiation  of  projects  calculated  to  open  up 
and  settle  the  country.  The  Simon  Bolivar  of  the 
revolution  was  born  on  July  24,  1783,  in  Caracas  ; 
he  went  to  the  Court  of  Madrid  as  a  youth,  and  there 
acquitted  himself  well,  but,  shortly  after  his  return 
to  his  native  country  in  1802,  lost  his  young  wife. 
Possibly  this  bereavement  helped  to  harden  his 
character,  and  so  to  acquire  for  him  that  reputation 
for  cruelty  and  obstinacy  which  marred  the  early 
history  of  his  work  as  liberator  of  his  native  country 
and  of  half  of  South  America. 

The  young  soldier  found  himself  in  Cucuta  (south- 
ward of  the  Lake  of  Maracaibo)  early  in  1 8 1 3,  and 
was  instructed  by  the  revolutionary  Government  in 
Santa  Fe  de  Bogota  to  proceed  with  the  conflict,  but 
to  wage  war  against  armed  Spaniards  only.  On 
June  8th  he  declared  a  war  of  vengeance  to  the 
death  against  Spain  in  Merida,  and  marching  north- 
wards, won  victories  at  Niquitao,  Los  Horcones,  and 
Taguanes,  finally  reaching  and  taking  Caracas. 
Meanwhile,  Juan  Bautista  Arismendi  had  taken  the 
Island  of  Margarita  ;  and  Marino,  Bermudez,  Piar 
and  Sucre  took  Maturin  and  Cumana  in  August, 
leaving    only    Coro,    Maracaibo,    Guayana,    part    of 


88  VENEZUELA 

Barinas,  and  the  plaza  of  Puerto  Cabello  in  the 
hands  of  the  royalists. 

Following  these  successes,  Bolivar  was  made 
Dictator,  with  legislative  and  executive  powers,  and 
arrangements  were  made  for  the  formation  of  a 
Congress  similar  to  that  of  New  Granada.  Later 
in  the  year  the  Dictator  marched  on  Puerto  Cabello, 
where  his  proposal  for  an  exchange  of  prisoners  met 
with  an  offer  of  two  Spaniards  for  one  Venezuelan, 
with  the  exception  of  one  Jalon,  whom  Monteverde 
refused  to  release  ;  at  the  same  time  the  Spanish 
leader  killed  four  of  the  prisoners.  Reinforcements 
reached  him  from  Cadiz  about  this  time,  but  they 
were  defeated  by  the  patriots,  who  later  in  the  year 
gained  other  victories  over  Ceballos. 

Early  in  1814  Monteverde  was  compelled  by  his 
ofBcers  to  give  up  his  command  and  retire  to  the 
Antilles  ;  but  to  counterbalance  this,  just  after  the 
meeting  of  the  popular  assembly  in  Caracas  came  the 
rising  of  the  Mestizos,  or  half-breeds  of  the  Llanos, 
under  Tomas  Boves,  on  behalf  of  the  royalists,  a 
new  factor  which  delayed  the  settlement  of  the 
struggle  for  years.  After  Boves's  victory  over  the 
patriots  at  La  Puerta,  when  another  force  was 
advancing  on  Ocumare,  Bolivar  was  guilty  of  the 
barbarity  of  massacring  all  the  Spaniards  in  Puerto 
Cabello.  After  several  battles,  the  total  results  of 
which  were  indecisive,  Boves  finally  defeated  Bolivar 
and  Marifio  by  sheer  force  of  numbers  in  the  Aragua 
valley  and  forced  them  to  fly  to  Caracas.  On 
July  6th  Bolivar  evacuated  the  town,  and  with  its 
inhabitants  retreated  to  Barcelona  overland,  where 
upon  the  royalists  and  llaneros  entered  it  two  days 
later  and  Boves  claimed  the  supreme  power  in 
Venezuela,  although  this  had  been  vested  by  the 
Spanish  Government  in  Cajil.  Murmurings  against 
Bolivar  now  made  themselves  heard,  and  Ribas  and 
others  of  his  generals  wished  to  assassinate  him  in 


STATUE    IN    I'LAZA    BOLIVAR:     CARACAS. 


To  face  page  S8. 


THE   REPUBLIC,   1811-1911  89 

revenge  for  their  defeats  ;  he  was,  however,  per- 
mitted to  retire  in  safety  to  the  Antilles.  Later  Boves 
occupied  Cumana  with  massacre  and  defeated  the 
patriot  leaders  in  Urica,  sending  his  lieutenant. 
Morales,  to  Maturfn.  Meanwhile,  after  the  restora- 
tion, of  Ferdinand  VII.,  an  expedition  of  15,000  men 
was  sent  from  Spain  imder  Morillo  ;  with  the 
capitulation  to  him  of  Margarita  early  in  1 8 1 5  the 
outlook  for  the  republic  was  black  indeed. 

Once  again  the  barbarities  of  the  new  Spanish 
leader  acted  as  a  goad  to  the  jaded  spirits  of  the 
patriots,  for  after  breaking  his  promises  of  amnesty 
in  Marg'arita  he  proceeded  to  show  no  mercy  to  any 
patriot  families  met  with  in  Cardcas  or  on  his  way 
to  New  Granada,  where  also  his  barbarous  conduct 
brought  him  an  unenviable  notoriety.  Bolivar  had 
recaptured  Santa  F6  with  the  remnant  of  the  Vene- 
zuelan patriot  army,  but  the  beginning  of  i  8 1  6  found 
him  in  Jamaica  planning  his  great  campaign,  with 
a  view  to  forming  fifteen  independent  republics  in 
South  America,  including  the  Great  Colombia,  which 
afterwards  became  for  a  short  time  a  reality. 

With  a  view  to  the  fulfilment  of  these  dreams  he 
secured  help  in  Haiti,  and  later  in  the  year  reached 
Margarita.  His  associates  included  MacGregor  and 
Ducoudray-Holstein,  Crossing  to  Carupano,  he  sent 
Mariiio  to  Guaira,  Piar  to  Maturin,  and  with 
Anzodtegui  and  other  leaders  he  himself  marched 
to  Ocumare  ;  here,  however,  he  was  cut  off  by 
royalist  forces,  and,  retreating,  joined  Zaraza  and 
Monagas  with  their  guerilla  troops  in  the  Llanos, 
and  finally  with  Piar  defeated  the  royalists  in  the 
battle  of  El  Juncal,  near  Barcelona.  The  net  result 
of  the  campaign  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  year  was, 
however,  adverse,  and  when,  after  joining  Bermudez 
in  Bonaire,  he  crossed  again  to  Paria,  he  was 
threatened  with  death  by  the  newly  arrived  leader 
and  Marino.      As  a  result  he   returned  to   Haiti  on 


90  VENEZUELA 

August  22nd,  but  came  back  later  in  the  year  at  the 
request  of  Piar  and  other  generals. 

Early  in  181 7  Maririo  and  Bermudez  again  came 
to  an  agreement  with  Bolivar,  but  when  he  and 
Arismendi  were  defeated  at  Clarines,  on  their  way 
to  Caracas,  Marino  again  became  subordinate,  and, 
to  his  lasting  disgrace,  left  General  Freites  without 
support  in  Barcelona,  where  he  and  300  refugees 
were  massacred  in  the  Casa  Fuerte  on  April  7th  by 
the  royalists.  Shortly  after  these  events  a  Congress 
was  formed  in  Cariaco,  by  which  Bolivar  was  made 
one  of  the  Executive,  but  Marino  Commander-in- 
Chief  ;  the  latter  was  at  this  time  in  Margarita, 
which   was   now   first   named   Nueva   Esparta. 

Meanwhile,  Bolivar  had  moved  southward  to 
Guayana,  and  a  fresh  invasion  of  royalists  soon 
drove  the  other  leaders  in  Cariaco  to  join  him  there. 
After  a  victory  at  San  Felix  by  Piar  the  prisoners 
and  monks  were  massacred,  but  by  whose  orders 
could  not  be  definitely  ascertained.  The  city  of 
Angostura  was  evacuated  by  the  Spanish  on 
July  17th,  and  Guayana  Vieja  on  August  3rd. 
During  the  succeeding  months  Paez  was  fighting  with 
Morillo  in  the  plains  of  Barinas  ;  Marino,  by  the 
intervention  of  Sucre,  finally  acknowledged  Bolivar 
as  commander-in-chief,  and  Piar,  for  insubordination 
and  ostensibly  also  for  the  massacre  of  San  Felix, 
was  condemned  by  court-martial.  On  September  3rd 
an  order  was  issued  for  the  sequestration  of  royalist 
property  to  pay  for  the  war,  and  in  November  Bolivar 
left  Angostura  for  Calabozo.  After  one  reverse  he 
retired  into  the  province  of  Barinas,  where  Paez 
joined  him  ;  and  finally,  early  in  i  8  1 8,  he  defeated 
Morillo  at  Calabozo,  though  Paez  was  in  April 
forced  back  on  San  Fernando  de  Apure  with  a 
few  men. 

With  insubordination  and  murmurings  among  his 
own  generals,  decreased  troops  and  depleted  treasure. 


THE   REPUBLIC,    1811-1911  91 

and  without  the  encouragement  of  decisive  victories 
to  make  good  these  deficiencies,  the  outlook  for 
Bolivar  and  for  the  cause  in  which  he  was  fighting 
might  well  have  disheartened  him  at  this  time.  In 
March,  however,  Colonel  Daniel  O'Leary  had  arrived 
with  the  troops  raised  by  Colonel  Wilson  in  London, 
consisting  largely  of  veterans  of  the  Napoleonic  wars. 
These  tried  soldiers,  afterwards  known  as  the  British 
Legion,  were  destined  to  play  an  all-important  part  in 
the  liberation  of  Venezuela,  and  Bolivar  soon  recog- 
nised their  value,  spending  the  time  till  December 
in  distributing  these  new  forces  to  the  best  advantage. 

Elections  were  arranged  in  the  autumn,  and  on 
February  15,  18  19,  Congress  was  installed  in  Angos- 
tura. Bolivar  took  the  British  Constitution  as  his 
model,  with  the  substitute  of  an  elected  president 
for  an  hereditary  king,  and  was  himself  proclaimed 
provisional  holder  of  the  office.  The  hereditary  form 
of  the  Senate  was,  however,  soon  given  up. 

The  early  part  of  the  year  was  spent  in  local 
marchings  and  counter-marchings,  but  in  June 
Bolivar  set  out,  accompanied  by  Colonel  James  Rook 
and  the  British  Legion,  on  his  famous  march  to 
New  Granada.  Pushing  through  swamps  and  forests 
and  marching  over  interminable  plains,  they  met  and 
defeated  the  advance  guard  of  the  enemy  in  the 
defile  of  Paya.  The  first  week  in  July  found  them 
crossing  the  Paramo  of  Pisva  on  the  road  to  Bogota, 
where  many  men  perished  from  the  cold.  The  rest 
of  the  month  saw  them  victorious  in  many  battles, 
in  which  the  British  Legion  and  the  llaneros  made 
themselves  conspicuous.  With  2,000  patriots 
Bolivar  defeated  3,000  royalists  in  the  battle  of 
Boyacd  on  August  7th,  taking  many  prisoners.  On 
reaching  Bogota  he  made  Santander  vice-president 
of  New  Granada  and  left  the  prisoners  in  his  charge, 
a  confidence  which  the  latter  abused  by  shooting 
the    most    prominent,    on    pretext    of    an    attempted 


92  VENEZUELA 

escape.  In  the  meantime  there  was  the  normal  dis- 
affection in  the  east,  where  Arismendi  had  been  made 
vice-president,  in  the  place  of  Zea,  in  Angostura. 
On  hearing  of  Bolivar's  successes,  he  immediately, 
wanted  to  resign  ;  Bolivar,  however,  ignored  his 
attempted  insubordination,  and  made  him  com- 
mander-in-chief  in   the   east. 

On  December  17,  18 19,  Bolivar  formally  inau- 
gurated the  Great  Colombian  republic,  consisting  of  . 
the  three  Departments  of  Venezuela,  Cundinamarca, 
and  Quito.  A  new  capital  with  the  name  of  Bolivar 
was  to  be  built  near  the  boundary  of  Cundina- 
marca and  Venezuela,  and  the  first  united  Congress 
was  to  assemble  in  Rosario  de  Cucuta.  Although 
this  Declaration  was  not  formally  ratified  for  two 
years  in  Quito,  1820  marks  the  close  of  the  first 
period  of  Venezuela's  independence,  from  the  Declara- 
tion of  July  5,  181 1,  to  its  inclusion  in  the  Great 
Colombia,  a  part  of  which  it  remained  till   1830. 

With  the  commencement  of  the  second  period  we 
come  to  an  entirely  new  condition  of  affairs.  While 
/  Spain  was  desirous  of  attempting  a  reconciliation 
^with  the  northern  colony,  she  did  not  realise  that 
the  Mestizos,  and  therefore  the  population  of  Vene- 
zuela generally,  were  now  in  favour  of  independence 
and  after  their  period  of  successful  fighting,  were 
not  willing  to  accept  less  than  a  recognition  of  their 
freedom  in  some  part,  at  least,  of  the  territory.  While 
the  attitude  of  the  Spanish  authorities  was  thus  fool- 
ishly lacking  in  appreciation  of  all  that  had  happened 
in  the  last  ten  years,  their  general  in  comtnand  in 
Venezuela,  Morillo,  showed  himself  most  conciliatory 
and  even  magnanimous.  On  November  .25th,  owing 
to  his  efforts,  the  armistice  of  Trujillo  was  declared. 
On  the  following  day  came  the  "  regularisation  "  of 
the  campaign,  by  which  it  was  determined  that  hos- 
tilities should  not  recommence  till  April  28th  of  the 
next  year,  and  on  the  27th  of  the  month  the  opposing 


THE    REPUBLIC,    1811-1911  93 

leaders  met  in  the  little  village  of  Santa  Ana,  north 
of  Trujillo. 

By  the  beginning  of  1821  Bolivar  had  returned 
to  Bogotd,  and  there  he  nominated  a  plenipotentiary 
to  carry  on  negotiations  with  Spain,  claiming  for  his 
part  recognition  of  the  absolute  independence,  either 
of  Colombia  with  its  three  divisions  or  of  the  part 
of  the  territory  which  had  now  been  liberated.  He 
authorised  the  republic's  representative,  however,  to 
give  up  the  recognition  of  Quito,  if  necessary,  but 
either  that  or  Panama  was  to  be  included.  Finally, 
the  republic  asserted  its  willingness  to  enter  into 
an  alliance  with  Spain,  but  its  unalterable  oppo- 
sition to  union  or  to  the  rule  of  any  European' 
sovereign. 

Spain,  in  spite  of  this  clear  statement  of  the  case 
of  the  republic,  persisted  in  regarding  the  revolution 
as  a  mere  insurrection,  and  the  first  negotiations 
broke  down.  Meanwhile,  in  January,  the  province  of 
Maracaibo  had  declared  itself  independent  and  part 
of  Colombia.  Later,  one  of  Bolivar's  generals  occu- 
pied the  town  of  Gibraltar,  on  the  Lake  of  Mara- 
caibo, an  act  of  zeal  on  his  part  which  was 
nevertheless  a  violation  of  the  terms  of  the  armistice 
of  Trujillo.  Bolivar  wished  to  submit  this  matter 
to  arbitration,  but  before  anything  had  been  arranged 
the  date  for  resumption  of  hostilities  came  round, 
and  the  last  stage  of  the  struggle  began. 

The  royalists  at  this  time  held  the  province  of 
Cumand,  and  Caracas  between  the  towns  of  Unare 
and  Guanare,  and  at  both  ends  of  the  region  they 
were  attacked  simultaneously.  They  succeeded  in 
driving  Bermudez  out  of  the  capital,  but  Bolivar 
was  in  Tinaquillo,  not  far  to  the  west,  with  6,500 
men,  his  generals  being  Paez,  in  command  of  the 
Bravos  de  Apure  and  Britanico  battalions  ;  Cedeno, 
with  one  brigade  of  the  La  Guardia,  and  the 
Tiradores,    Boyaca   and    Vargas    battalions  ;     Playa, 


94  VENEZUELA 

with  the  other  brigade  of  the  La  Guardia,  a  regi- 
ment of  English  Rifles,  the  Granaderos,  and  Vence- 
dores  dc  Boyaca  ;  and  Anzoategui,  with  one  cavalry 
regiment  under  a  Llanero  leader.  Marino  was 
Bolivar's   chief -of -staff. 

On  June  24,  1821,  the  Spanish  leader,  La  Torre, 
occupied  the  plain  of  Carabobo  with  5,000  men  (six 
columns  of  infantry  and  three  of  cavalry).  The 
patriot  army,  in  order  to  reach  them,  had  to  follow 
a  narrow  mountain  path  over  the  Alto  de  Buenavista, 
under  the  fire  of  the  royalists,  and  Paez  was  dis- 
patched on  a  flanking  movement  to  the  right.  Mean- 
while Bolivar,  having  descended  this  exposed  path, 
had  to  defile  a  second  time  to  cross  a  small  stream 
between  the  two  hills.  The  enemy  descended  to 
dispute  his  passage,  which  was  effected  under  cover 
of  a  hot  fire  from  the  infantry,  on  both  sides.  The 
Apure  battalion  crossed  first  and  were  nearly  driven 
back,  but  the  British  crossed  just  in  time  to  allow 
them  to  re-form,  while  the  Tiradores  speedily  came 
over  to  their  assistance,  the  hollow  square  formed 
by  our  countrymen  having  held  the  ground  at  the 
critical  moment  of  the  day.  By  this  time  the  cavalry 
were  across  and  the  field  was  won,  for  the  Spanish 
troops  were  unable  to  withstand  the  attack  of  the 
llaneros,  once  these  were  in  their  natural  element  in 
the  open  plains.  La  Torre  and  Morales  made  good 
their  escape,  owing  to  the  gallant  stand  made  by 
the  first  Valencey  battalion,  while  of  the  patriots, 
Bolivar  wrote  that  only  200  were  killed  or  wounded. 
La  Torre  fled  to  Puerto  Cabello,  and  Bolivar  marched 
on  to   Caracas. 

Casual  fighting  continued  for  two  years  more,  but 
the  power  of  Spain  was  finally  broken  at  Carabobo, 
and  the  last  royalist  adherents  capitulated  in  Puerto 
Cabello  on  October   8,    1823. 

In  the  meantime  the  Constitution  of  Great 
Colombia    had    been    adopted    by    the    Congress    of 


THE    REPUBLIC,   1811-1911  95 

Cucuta  in  August,  1821,  but  before  long  Venezuela 
found  her  position  in  the  Union  far  from  satisfactory. 
The  discontent  found  voice  in  the  municipality  of 
Valencia  in  1826,  Paez  being  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  separatists.  Bolivar  arrived  in  Puerto  Cabello 
from  the  west  in  1827,  having  previously  written  to 
Paez,  whose  loyalty  to  his  old  chief  made  him  bow 
to  his  opinion.  This,  however,  would  not  suffice  to 
make  up  for  the  bad  state  of  agricultural  industries 
and  of  the  country  generally,  and  the  murmurings 
broke  out  afresh.  In  1828  Bolivar  was  given  dic- 
tatorial power  by  the  Congress  of  Colombia,  while  on 
the  other  hand  plots  were  formed  by  the  malcon- 
tents to  assassinate  him.  In  the  following  year, 
during  Colombia's  squabbles  with  Peru,  Caracas  and 
Valencia  repudiated  Bolivar,  and  on  January  1 3, 
1830,  Paez  declared  Venezuela  independent  of 
Colombia. 

The  last  Colombian  Congress  met  in  the  "  con- 
ference of  Cucuta,"  and  Bolivar  finally  retired  from 
power  on  March  ist.  Valencia  even  demanded  his 
expulsion.  The  sentimental  attempt,  carried  through 
in  spite  of  practical  opposition,  to  form  so  large  a 
single  State  of  three  groups  of  settlements,  separated 
by  wide  areas  without  roads  or  other  means  of  com- 
munication, seems  but  another  instance  of  the  fre- 
quent inability  of  a  gallant  soldier  to  play  a  worthy 
part  in  the  politics  of  the  land  he  has  served.  It 
was,  nevertheless,  a  melancholy  period  of  the  history 
of  Venezuela  when  the  liberator  of  half  of  South 
America,  as  well  as  of  his  own  land,  was  left  to 
retire  broken-hearted  to  Santa  Marta  in  New 
Granada,  where  he  died  of  phthisis  on  December  i  7, 
1830,  and  was  buried  in  the  little  church  of  the 
town. 

But  though  Bolivar  was  unhonoured  in  his  death, 
the  main  object  to  which  he  had  devoted  his  life 
was  attained,  and,  as  we  shall  see,  after  twelve  years 


T 


96  VENEZUELA 

his  services  were  duly  recognised  by  the  country  and 
town  which  gave  him  birth.  The  next  period  of 
Venezuelan  history  lasts  to  1864,  during  which  the 
centralist  Constitution  was  in  force,  to  be  changed 
afterwards  to  the   federal  type   which  exists  to-day. 

One  of  his  generals,  Monagas,  still  remained  loyal 
to  Bolivar's  views,  and  for  some  years  continued 
his  efforts  to  persuade  the  powers  that  were  in 
Venezuela  to  join  themselves  again  with  Colombia. 
In  April,  1831,  however,  the  new  Congress  assembled 
and  formally  elected  General  Jose  Antonio  Paez  as 
President  of  the  republic  ;  an  embassy  was  dis- 
patched to  Bogota,  and  Caracas  was  declared  the 
capital  on  May  25th.  Early  in  the  following  year 
their  independence  was  formally  recognised  by 
Colombia,  and  measures  were  taken  to  provide  for 
the  efficient  administration  of  the  country,  which  was 
divided  into  three  districts,  the  Oriente,  Centre,  and 
Occidente,  the  supreme  courts  of  each  being  at 
Cumand,  Valencia,  and  Maracaibo  respectively. 

The  third  Venezuelan  Congress  met  in  January, 
1833,  and  proceeded  to  incorporate  the  wandering 
soldiers  of  the  revolution  into  a  regular  army,  and 
to  arrange  the  division  of  the  public  debt  and  other 
agreements   with   Colombia  and   Ecuador. 

At  the  end  of  1834  there  were  four  candidates 
for  the  presidency,  of  whom  Doctor  Jose  Maria 
Vargas  was  elected  in  1835  ;  a  good  omen  for  the 
country,  inasmuch  as  Vargas  was  a  scholar,  not  a 
soldier,  and  his  claim  to  the  confidence  of  his  country 
rested  on  more  solid  grounds  than  those  of  his 
military  opponents.  He  was  only  prevailed  upon 
with  difficulty  to  stand,  or  to  act  when  elected,  but 
displayed  a  praiseworthy  loftiness  of  motive  while 
in  office.  Marifio,  however,  showed  his  shallow  and 
selfish  nature  once  more  in  raising  discontent 
amongst  those  who  considered  that  might  should 
triumph  over  right  rather  than  the  reverse  ;    Vargas 


THE    REPUBLIC,    1811-1911  97 

resigned  early  in  1836,  and  for  the  rest  of  this 
presidential  term  the  vice-president  carried  out  the 
duties  of  the  office. 

In  1839  Paez  was  again  elected  President,  and 
in  that  year  did  much  to  increase  the  prosperity  of 
the  country  and  to  raise  its  position  in  South  America. 
The  cartroad  from  La  Guaira  to  Caracas  was 
opened,  and  another  commenced  between  Puerto 
Cabello  and  Valencia.  The  liberty  of  the  press  was 
so  far  increased  that  A.  L.  Guzman  was  able  to 
start  the  journal  El  Venezolano  in  opposition  to  the 
existing  Government,  and  in  support  of  the  Federal 
ideal  of  the  newly  formed  Liberal  party,  tlie 
Centralists  being  known  as  the  Oligarca.  In  the 
following  year  a  colonisation  scheme  was  put  for- 
ward, and  a  national  college  for  girls  opened,  while 
an  attempt  was  made  to  found  a  national  b;ank  in 
1 841.  This  year  also  saw  authority  given  to  the 
executive  to  take  measures  for  the  education  anid 
civilisation  of  the  aborigines,  and  to  put  in  hand 
the  standard  works  on  the  geography  and  history 
of  Venezuela  by  Codazzi  and  Baralt. 

In  1842,  the  last  year  of  Paez's  second  presi- 
dency, the  gradually  increasing  appreciation  of 
Bolivar's  services  to  his  country  culminated  on 
April  30th  in  a  decree  of  public  honours  to  the 
"  Libertador,"  as  he  was  now  styled,  and  bynjial  in 
state  in  Caracas.  The  Venezuelan  boats  Conslitucion 
and  Caracas,  H.M.S.  Albatross,  the  Dutch  warship 
La  Venus,  and  the  French  frigate  Circe,  accordingly 
left  La  Guaira,  bearing  a  deputation  of  influential 
men,  including  Vargas,  and  reached  Santa  Marta  on 
November  i6th.  The  people  of  Nueva  Granada 
recognised  willingly  the  prior  claims  of  Caracas,  as 
Bolivar's  birthplace,  and  his  body  was  borne  back 
on  the  Conslitucion.  A  permanent  triumphal  arch 
had  been  erected  in  his  honour  at  the  foot  of  El 
Calvario,  and  the  remains  were  laid  to  rest  in  the 
7 


98  VENEZUELA 

chapel  of  the  Holy  Trinity  in  Caracas  Cathedral, 
being  transferred   later  to   the    Pantheon. 

General  Carlos  Soublette  was  elected  President  in 
1843,  in  which  year  France  formally  recognised  the 
republic,  while  Spain  followed  in  March,  1845.  A 
further  honour  was  done  to  the  Liberator  by  re- 
naming Angostura  Ciudad  Bolivar  on  May  31,   1845. 

The  foreign  trade  of  Venezuela  had  tripled  since 
1830,  the  debt  had  been  reduced  from  9,372,448.44 
pesos  to  2,085,595.72  pesos,  and  General  Urdaneta 
was  in  London,  endeavouring  to  raise  a  loan  to  enable 
the  Government  to  free  the  slaves.  The  country 
was,  therefore,  in  a  fair  way  of  prosperity,  but  oppo- 
sition to  the  centralist  form  of  government  was  not 
decreasing.  It  would  seem,  notwithstanding,  that 
under  wise  rulers  this  grievance  could  have  been 
redressed  without  the  first  of  that  series  of  revo- 
lutions which,  beginning  not  many  years  later,  made 
Venezuela  a  byword  in  the  latter  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth   century. 

In  1847  General  Jose  Tadeo  Monagas  was  elected 
President,  and  commenced  his  period  of  office  by 
sentencing  Guzman,  the  editor  of  El  Venezolano,  to 
death,  subsequently  commuting  the  penalty  to  banish- 
ment. For  this  act  of  tyranny  he  was  censured  by 
Congress  in  the  following  year,  and  retaliated  by 
dissolving  the  Assembly  with  armed  force,  not  without 
bloodshed.  As  a  not  unnatural  result,  Paez 
attempted  to  start  an  insurrection  against  him  in 
Calabozo,  but  was  forced  to  fly  to  Colombia,  and  a 
similar  rising  in  Maracaibo  died  out.  The  death 
penalty  for  political  ofi"ences  was  abolished  by  Con- 
gress, but  Paez,  on  landing  in  Coro  in  an  attempt  to 
continue  his  revolt,  was  overpowered  and  capitu- 
lated ;  he  broke  his  terms,  however,  and  was  im- 
prisoned in  the  fortress  of  Cumana. 

By  the  end  of  1850  Tadeo  Monagas,  having 
acquired    power    as    a    member    of    the    Oligarca, 


THE    REPUBLIC,    1811-1911  99 

avowed  himself  a  Liberal  at  the  end  of  his  presi- 
dency. General  Jose  Grcgorio  Monagas  was  elected 
to  succeed  him,  a  man  of  whom  Tejera  says  that 
he  was  affable  m  temper,  of  a  generous  spirit,  and 
capable  of  noble  actions.  In  1854  he  promulgated 
the  decree  abolishing  slavery  within  Venezuelan  terri- 
tory, March   24th. 

The  year  1855  saw  J,  T.  Monagas  re-elected. 
In  this  term  the  country  was  divided  into  provinces 
identical  with  the  States  of  to-day,  though  in  some 
cases  the  names  differed.  In  1857  it  was  reported 
that  Guayana  had  been  sold  by  the  President,  and 
this  rumour,  with  his  repeated  abuses  of  power,  led 
to  the  revolution  of  Valencia  under  General  Julian 
Castro,    Governor   of   Carabobo,    March    5,    1858. 

This  was  the  first  serious  internal  dissension  in 
Venezuela,  but  here  we  have  only  the  revolt  of  the 
people  against  a  tyrant,  not  the  attempt  of  an 
individual  to  make  himself  master  of  the  country, 
on  selfish  grounds.  Taking  as  their  motto  Union 
de  los  part  id  OS,  y  olvido  de  lo  pasado,  the  revolu- 
tionaries forced  Monagas  to  take  refuge  in  the  French 
Legation,  Julian  Castro  being  acclaimed  Provisional 
President.  Unfortunately,  despite  the  motto,  one  of 
his  earliest  acts  was  to  imprison  Monagas,  in  direct 
violation  of  the  promises  given  to  the  French  and 
British  Legations,  which  led  to  an  imbroglio  with  the 
two  countries. 

Meanwhile  the  seat  of  government  was  removed  to 
Valencia,  though  Caracas  again  became  the  capital 
after  a  few  weeks,  when,  following  the  success  of 
Julian  Castro's  rising,  he  being  a  Conservative,  the 
Liberals,  with  Zamora  and  Falcon  as  leaders,  landed 
in  Coro  on  July  24th.  Castro  was  shortly  after- 
wards captured  and  imprisoned,  but  the  Conservatives 
proclaimed  Pedro  Gual  President,  with  Manuel 
Felipe  Tovar  as  Vice-President.  Battles  were  fought 
between  the  Centralists  and  Federalists  in  the  streets 


100  VENEZUELA 

of  Caracas,  and  at  Santa  Ines  and  San  Carlos,  but 
finally  Falcon  was  defeated  on  March  17,  i860, 
and  Tovar  elected  as  constitutional  President. 
Throughout  1861,  however,  Paez  was  actively  work- 
ing against  him,  and  finally,  in  1862,  was  declared 
dictator. 

In  1863,  after  a  conference  between  the  dictator's 
secretary  and  General  Guzman  Blanco,  leader  of  the 
Federals  of  the  Centro,  the  "  convenio  de  Coche  " 
allowed  the  National  Assembly  to  nominate  Falcon 
President  and  Guzman  Blanco  Vice-President,  while 
Paez  left  for  the  United  States.  After  the  elections 
public  works  of  some  magnitude  were  authorised  and 
a  £1,500,000  European  loan.  Finally,  on  March  28, 
1864,  the  new  Federal  Constitution  was  adopted, 
whereby  the  United  States  of  Venezuela  came  into 
being,  consisting  of  twenty  sovereign  States,  with 
a  Federal  two-chamber  Legislature,  an  Executive  of 
President  and  six  ministers,  and  judicial  power  in 
the  hands  of  a  high  Federal  court  holding  jurisdiction 
in  international  affairs.  The  death  penalty  was 
abolished,  with  imprisonment  for  debt,  the  rights  of 
meeting  and  of  a  free  press  were  established,  and 
in  other  respects  the  Constitution  took  the  general 
form  which  it  has  to-day. 

At  the  close  of  Falcon's  presidency  the  Centralists 
again  attempted  forcibly  to  gain  power  under  the 
leadership  of  the  changeable  J.  T.  Monagas,  by  whom 
Caracas  was  occupied  in  June.  He  died  in 
November,  and  J.  R.  Monagas  was  chosen  pro- 
visional President  in  1869.  The  Federalists  mean- 
while were  endeavouring  to  regain  their  position  by 
force  of  arms,  with  the  result  that  Monagas  was 
never  elected,  and  on  April  27,  1870,  Guzman  Blanco 
was  able  to  call  together  a  Congress  which  nomi- 
nated him  provisional  President.  Owing  to  continued 
disturbances  he  was  only  formally  elected  towards 
the    end    of    1872.      In    1874    an    Act    was    passed 


THE    REPUBLIC,    1811-1911         101 

reducing  the  presidential  period  from  four  years  to 
two,  and  Francisco  Linares  Alcantara  was  elected 
in  1877,  but  the  fatal  series  of  individual  revolutions 
now  begins  with  Gregorio  Cedeno,  by  whom  Caracas 
was  occupied  in  February,   1879. 

Guzman  Blanco  was  immediately  recalled  from 
Europe  and  hailed  as  Director  Supremo  de  la 
Relvindicacion  Nacional,  being  made  provisional 
President  by  the  new  Congress,  and  formally  elected 
in  1880,  and  again  in  1882,  doing  much  to  advance 
the  reputation  of  his  country  during  these  years. 
General  Joaquin  Crespo_,  a;  llanero,  who  had  been 
Minister  of  War  since  1870,  succeeded  him  for  the 
period  1884-6,  but  in  the  latter  year  Guzman  Blanco, 
again  President,  was  dispatched  by  Congress  to 
Europe  as  plenipotentiary.  Doctor  Rojas  Paul  and 
R.  A.  Palacio  successively  occupied  the  presidential 
chair  till  1892,  by  which  time  Venezuela's  trade  had 
reached  an  amount  never  touched  before  or  since,  and 
the  country  was  generally  in  a  prosperous  condition. 

Despite  the  advance  made  by  Venezuela  during  the 
period  from  1880  to  1892,  throughout  which  Guzman 
Blanco  was  either  actually  or  virtually  President,  his 
rule  was  at  times  unduly  autocratic,  and  his  affection 
for  statues  of  himself  and  for  high-sounding  titles, 
such  as  "  Z:/  I  lustre  Americano,'"  seems  strange  in 
a  man  with  so  great  business  ability  both  on  behalf 
of  his  country  and  himself.  In  time  he  might  have 
raised  Venezuela  to  a  position  comparable  to  that 
of  Mexico  under  Diaz,  but  as  it  was  the  less  attractive 
and  dignified  side  of  his  character  began,  for  the 
time  being,  to  undermine  the  affection  and  esteem 
in  which  he  had  been  held  by  his  countrymen,  and 
a  desire  for  a  change  of  control  became  general. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  Venezuelans  of 
to-day  remember  only  the  beneficent  aspects  of  his 
periods  of  office. 

Unfortunately,    the    example    of    Cedeilo,    and    the 


102  VENEZUELA 

successful  internal  revolutions  of  earlier  days,  had 
not  been  forgotten,  and  now  Crespo  secured  his  re- 
election by  force,  his  first  act  being  to  restore  the 
presidential  period  to  four  years.  In  1898  he  was 
succeeded  by  Jose  Andrade,  formerly  Venezuelan 
Minister  at  Washington,  and  though  his  period  of 
office  was  short  it  was  important  as  marking  the 
settlement  of  a  dispute  which,  after  lasting  for  over 
sixty  years,  nearly  led  to  a  rupture  between  this 
country  and  the  United  States. 

From  the  early  days  of  the  independence  of 
Venezuela  continual  protests  had  been  made  by  the 
representatives  of  the  republic  against  the  alleged 
encroachments  of  residents  and  officials  from  British 
Guiana.  Briefly,  the  contentions  raised  by  the  two 
parties  were  :  on  the  part  of  Venezuela,  that  the 
Dutch,  to  whom  we  were  successors,  had  only  claimed 
jurisdiction  on  the  east  side  of  the  Essequibo  River  ; 
on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  that  the  Dutch  had  in 
1759  and  1769  put  forward  the  claim  that  their 
territory  included,  not  merely  the  Essequibo  River 
but  the  whole  of  the  basin  drained  by  that  river  and 
its  tributaries.  This  claim  was  never  rebutted  by 
the  authorities   in  Madrid. 

So  the  dispute  dragged  on,  the  British  Government 
refusing  to  consent  to  arbitration  of  the  boundary 
unless  it  was  previously  agreed  by  Venezuela  that 
such  parts  of  the  Essequibo  Valley  as  had  been  effec- 
tively occupied  by  British  colonists  were  recognised 
as  their  territory.  In  April,  1895,  the  arrest  by  the 
Venezuelan  authorities  pi  two  inspectors  of  the 
British  Guiana  Police  on  the  Cuyuni  River  brought 
matters  to  a  crisis.  The  inspectors  were  soon  re- 
leased, but  Crespo  appealed  to  Washington  for  pro- 
tection against  any  claim  for  indemnity.  President 
Cleveland  took  up  the  cause  of  Venezuela  on  the 
ground  that  any  action  by  Great  Britain  would  con- 
stitute an  infringement  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  and 


THE    REPUBLIC,    1811-1911         103 

in  December,  1895,  sent  his  two  famous  messages  to 
Congress,  in  which  he  declared  that  any  forcible 
action  by  this  country  would  constitute  a  casus  belli 
with  the  United  States.  For  a  time  great  excitement 
prevailed  in  Caracas,  associations  being  formed  for 
the  boycott  of  British  goods  and  for  national  defence. 
Fortunately,  wiser  counsels  prevailed  on  both  sides 
and  diplomatic  relations  were  resumed  in  1897,  the 
matter  being  submitted  to  arbitration,  and  finally 
settled  by  the  award  of  the  tribunal  of  Paris  on 
October  3,   1899. 

Hardly  had  this  long-standing  and  vexatious 
external  dispute  been  cleared  up  when  the  prosperity 
of  Venezuela  was  once  again  threatened  by  internal 
dissension.  Cipriano  Castro,  a  Tachiran,  had  in  May 
declared  his  intention  of  avenging  a  real  or  intended 
slight  received  from  the  Government,  and,  after 
marching  through  the  Andes  at  the  head  of  the  so- 
called  Ejercito  Restcarador,  fighting  several  succes- 
ful  battles  on  the  M^ay,  he  entered  Caracas  late  in 
October.  The  executive  power,  which  he  immediately 
assumed,  was  only  confirmed  by  an  Asamblea  Coii- 
sfituyente  in   Febru?ry,    1901. 

In  March  of  chat  year  a  new  Constitution  was 
decreed,  whereby  the  presidential  period  was  ex- 
tended to  six  years,  and  Castro  was  duly  elected  to 
the  office.  In  1902  the  "  Matos  "  revolution  broke 
out,  under  the  general  of  that  name  ;  this  appears  to 
have  been  a  genuine  popular  revolt,  and  almost 
proved  successful  when  in  the  autumn  of  the  year  a 
tactical  mistake  on  the  part  of  the  revolutionists  ,left 
Castro   master   of   the   country. 

No  attempt  was  made  to  compensate  foreigners 
for  the  damage  to  property  suffered  by  them  during 
these  various  revolutions,  and  in  view  of  the  accu- 
mulation of  claims  the  powers  chiefly  concerned — 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  Italy— declared  a 
blockade    of    the    ports    of    Venezuela    in    January, 


104  VENEZUELA 

1903,  which  had  the  desired  effect  of  persuading 
Castro's  Government  to  agree  to  the  arbitration  of 
the  various  claims  by  third  parties.  Though  the 
allied  Powers  demanded  that  their  claims  should  be 
settled  first,  the  counter-demand  of  Venezuela,  that 
all  the  Powers,  peaceful  and  otherwise,  should  be 
treated  alike,  was  upheld  by  the  Hague  Tribunal, 
and  protocols  with  all  the  countries  were  signed 
within  a  few  months. 

A  second  change  of  the  Constitution  was  decreed 
in  April,  1904,  whereby  it  was  made  possible  for 
Castro  to  be  again  declared  provisional  President, 
and  in  June  of  the  following  year  he  was  elected  for 
the  term  1905- 11,  with  General  Gomez  again  as 
one  of  the  Vice-Presidents,  the  other  being  Jose 
Antonio   Velutini. 

Once  securely  possessed  of  the  presidency, 
Castro's  rule  became  that  of  a  Dictator,  and 
though  his  strength  of  purpose  might  well  have  made 
him  a  national  hero  had  he  been  animated  by  love 
of  country,  his  selfish  abuse  of  power  rendered  his 
period  of  office  a  time  of  retrogression  throughout 
the  republic.  Vicious  reprisals  for  real  or  fancied 
slights  and  equally  capricious  distribution  of  rewards 
to  those  who  obeyed  his  behests,  while  they  pro- 
duced as  much  satisfaction  as  discontent  amongst 
individuals,  left  the  thoughtful  man  with  a  feeling 
of  insecurity  which  was  fatal  to  any  real  advance  in 
commercial  or  general  prosperity.  An  equally  whim- 
sical expenditure  of  money  on  public  works  of 
questionable  utility  tended  only  to  aggravate  the 
dissatisfaction  amongst  the  wiser  heads  of  the 
community. 

When,  after  nearly  five  years  of  despotism,  he 
started  for  Europe  in  1909,  leaving,  it  was  said,  secret 
instructions  to  assassinate  General  Gomez,  of  whose 
popularity  he  was  jealous,  the  discontent  found  vent 
in  a  general  acclamation  of  the  latter's  coup  d'etat, 


THE    REPUBLIC     1811-1911         105 

whereby  he  secured  his  safety,  the  admiration  of  the 
soldiery,  and  the  presidential  power,  without  de- 
liberately shedding  Venezuelan  blood.  A  new  Con- 
stitution was  promulgated  in  November,  1909, 
reverting  in  general  to  the  form  of  1864,  and  in 
April,  1 910,  the  elections  established  General  Juan 
Vicente  Gomez  as  Constitutional  President  for  the 
current  term. 

Since  that  time  the  centenary  of  the  independ- 
ence of  the  republic  has  been  celebrated  in  Caracas, 
at  which  period  the  ex -Dictator's  carefully  planned 
attempt  to  occupy  the  country  was  frustrated  by  the 
seizure  of  his  ships  as  piratical  vessels  in  Haiti.  The 
new  President  has  shown  himself  eager  to  promote 
the  welfare  of  the  country  and  to  encourage  com- 
merce, Consuls  have  been  appointed  to  stations  where, 
since  the  time  of  Guzman  Blanco,  there  have  been 
none  ;  the  application  of  foreign  capital  to  the 
development  of  the  resources  of  the  country  has  been 
encouraged,  with  due  regard  to  the  rights  of  the 
inhabitants  ;  and,  more  than  all,  the  spirit  of  the 
country  at  large,  wearied  with  the  fifty  revolutions 
of  the  last  eighty  years,  is  opposed  to  further  civil 
strife,  and  inclined  to  maintain  that  internal  peace 
the  benefits  of  which  are  already  being  enjoyed. 


CHAPTER    VI 

MODERN   VENEZUELA 

Boundaries — Frontier  with  Brazil — Colombia — British  Guiana — 
Internal  subdivision — States  and  territories  with  their  capitals 
— Density  of  population — Constitution — Departments  of  the 
executive — "Jcfcs  Civilcs — Legislature— Senators  and  deputies — 
Administration  of  Justice — Laws  relating  to  foreigners — Mar- 
riage— Public  health — Philanthropic  institutions — Education — 
Coinage — Multiplicity  of  terms  —  Towns  —  Typical  houses — 
Furniture — Hospitality— Food — Clothing — Army  and  Navy — 
Insignia — Buslo  dc  Bolivar — The  Press. 

The  United  States  of  Venezuela,  as  constituted 
to-day,  are  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  on  the  south  by  the  United  States  of  Brazil,  on 
the  east  by  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
and  British  Guiana,  on  the  west  by  the  republic 
of  Colombia. 

The  boundary  between  Brazil  and  Venezuela  was 
determined  by  a  Joint  Commission  in  1880  as 
follows  :  From  Mount  Roraima,  south  and  west  along 
the  watershed  of  the  Sierra  Pacaraima,  to  Cerro 
Mashiati,  thence  southwards  along  the  Sierra  Parima, 
and  the  Sierras  de  Curupira,  Tapira  Peco,  and  Imeri 
to  the  bifurcation  of  the  Rivers  Baria  and  Cauapury 
on  the  Rio  Negro. 

The  Colombia-Venezuelan  frontier  was  submitted 
to  arbitration  in  1891,  and  the  King  of  Spain  made 
the  award  thus  :  From  Los  Mogotes  or  Los  Frailes 
islands   to   the   highest    point   of   the   Oca   Mountain 


MODERN    VENEZUELA  107 

separating  the  Valley  of  Upar,  the  province  of  Mara- 
caibo,  and  Rio  del  Hacha,  thence  along  the  watershed 
of  the  sierras  of  Perija  and  Motilones  to  the  source 
of  the  Rio  de  Oro.  Thence  across  the  Rivers  Cata- 
tumbo,  Sardinata,  and  Tarra  to  the  mouth  of  the  La 
Grita  on  the  Rio  Zulia  ;  from  that  point  along  the 
previously  recognised  line  to  the  junction  of  the 
Quebrada  de  Don  Pedro  v^ith  the  Tachira,  and  up 
that  river  to  its  source.  Thence  across  the  range 
and  Paramo  of  Tama  to  the  River  Oira  ;  down  this 
to  its  junction  with  the  Sarare,  and  along  the  latter, 
through  the  Laguna  de  Desparramadero,  to  the  junc- 
tion with  the  Arauca,  down  that  river  to  a  point 
equidistant  from  Arauca  and  the  meridian  of  the 
junction  of  the  Masparro  and  Apure.  Thence  in  a 
straight  line  to  Antiguo  Apostadero,  and  down  the 
Meta  to  the  Orinoco.  Then  down  the  mid-stream  of 
the  Orinoco  (reserving  a  right  of  way  for  Venezuelans 
on  the  left  bank  between  Atures  and  the  Maipures 
rapids  to  the  mouth  of  the  Guaviare,  up  the  latter 
to  the  junction  with  the  Atabapo  ;  then  up  this  to 
a  point  36  kilometres  west  of  Pimichin,  and  so  across 
to  the  Guainia  (or  Rio  Negro),  following  this  down 
to  Cocuhy. 

The  British  Guiana  boundary  was  submitted  to 
arbitration  in  1897,  and  the  Paris  tribunal,  in  1899, 
awarded  as  follows  :  From  the  coast  at  Punta  Playa 
in  a  straight  line  to  the  junction  of  the  Barima  and 
Mururuma  ;  thence  along  mid-stream  of  the  latter 
to  its  source.  From  this  point  to  the  junction  of 
the  Rio  Haiowa  and  the  Amacura,  and  along  mid- 
stream of  the  latter  to  its  source  in  the  Sierra 
Imataca.  Then  south-west  along  the  spur  to  the 
main  range  of  tlie  sierra  opposite  the  source  of  the 
Barima  ;  then  along  the  watershed  south-east  to  the 
source  of  the  Ackrabisi  and  down  it  to  the  Cuyuni, 
westward  along  this  river  to  its  junction  with  the 
Wenamu    (Venamo)    and   up    the   latter   to    its   most 


108  VENEZUELA 

westerly  course.  Thence  in  a  straight  line  to  the 
summit  of  Mount  Roraima. 

The  political  divisions  of  the  country  established 
in  1856  were  adopted,  with  some  slight  changes,  in 
the  Constitution  of  November,  1909,  when  General 
Gomez  assumed  the  presidency.  The  divisions  for 
which  these  were  substituted  were  less  convenient  for 
administrative  purposes,  but  were  in  general  form 
the  sam& — that  is  to  say.  States  divided  into  districts, 
a  Federal  District  and  Territories.  There  are  now 
twenty  States  with  their  own  Legislatures,  the  Federal 
District  of  Caracas  under  the  Central  Government, 
and  two  Territories.  The  population  of  these  is  given 
in  Appendix  A. 

The  Federal  District  includes  the  country  round 
Caracas,  and  the  coastal  region  between  Naiguata 
and  Cabo  Blanco,  with  the  islands  to  the  north.  The 
States  are  distributed  as  follows  : — 

Zulia  (capital,  Maracaibo),  includes  all  the  lake 
region  ;  Tachira  (capital,  San  Cristobal),  Merida, 
and  Trujillo  are  the  Andine  States  ;  Lara  (capital, 
Barquisimeto),  Falcon  (Coro),  and  Yaracuy  (San 
Felipe)  include  the  Segovia  highlands  and  the  coastal 
regions  in  front  ;  Carabobo  (Valencia),  Aragua  (La 
Victoria),  Miranda  (Ocumare),  and  Sucre  (Cumana) 
are  in  the  Caribbean  hills  ;  Nueva  Esparta  includes 
Margarita  and  the  other  islands  immediately  to  the 
north  and  east  (capital,  Asuncion)  ;  Monagas 
(Maturin),  Anzoategui  (Barcelona),  Guarico  (Cala- 
bozo),  Cojedes  (San  Carlos),  Portuguesa  (Guanare), 
Zamora  (Barinas),  and  Apure  (San  Fernando)  are 
wholly  or  mainly  Llano  States  ;  and  nearly  half  the 
territory  south  of  the  Orinoco  is  comprised  within 
the  State  of  Bolivar  and  governed  from  the  city  of 
the  same  name.  The  Delta-Amacuro  Territory  in- 
cludes the  delta  proper  and  the  similar  region  to 
the  south  of  it  ;  its  capital  is  Tucupita,  on  the  Caho 
Macareo  :    the  Amazonas  Territory,   with  its  capital 


MODERN    VENEZUELA  109 

on  the  Orinoco  at  San  Fernando  de  Atabapo,  includes 
the  Upper  Orinoco  basin  and  the  adjacent  districts, 
an  enormous,  almost  unknown  area. 

The  density  of  the  population  in  the  country  as  a 
whole  (according  to  the  Anuario  Estadlstico,  1910, 
census  of  1891)  is  2*27  per  square  kilometre,  or 
5*88  to  the  square  mile.  Some  idea  of  the  meaning 
of  these  figures  may  be  gathered  from  a  comparison 
of  the  population  of  Monagas,  where  there  are  6*68 
inhabitants  to  the  square  mile,  over  an  area  almost 
equal  to  that  of  Belgium,  with  that  of  the  latter 
country,  Monagas  having  74,500  inhabitants  and 
Belgium  nearly  7,500,000.  The  Federal  district 
stands  highest,  with  I5i"94  to  the  square  mile  ;  and, 
making  due  allowance  for  the  greater  density  of  the 
population  in  the  higher  lands,  the  figures  decrease 
in  proportion  to  the  distance  from  this  centre.  Thus 
the  coast  States  adjoining  the  Federal  districts,  with 
the  island  of  Margarita,  are  the  most  thickly  popu- 
lated, the  Segovia  highlands,  Andine  States,  and 
region  of  Paria  next,  with  the  northern  lowlands  and 
the  Llanos,  having  a  density  of  population  approxi- 
mately equal  to  that  of  the  whole  country,  while 
the  Guayana  region  and  the  Delta  territory  range  as 
low  as  0'4i  to  the  square  mile.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  no  exact  figures  are  available 
for  the  nomadic  tribes  who  people  the  remoter 
districts  of  Venezuela. 

The  Constitution  of  the  Republic  is  modelled  upon 
that  of  the  United  States  of  America  ;  the  President, 
elected  by  a  college  of  fourteen  members  of  Congress 
for  a  term  of  four  years,  is  the  head  of  the  nation  ; 
under  him  are  the  three  great  departments  of  the 
administration — executive,  legislative,  and  judicial, 
these  being  again  regarded  as  National,  Federal,  and 
Municipal,  according  to  their  powers.  Each  State  of 
the  Union  has  its  own  Legislature  and  President,  who 
is  a  Federal  officer,  while  the  territories  are  governed 
directly  by  the  national  Executive. 


110  VENEZUELA 

The  national  Executive  exercises  its  functions 
through  the  following  departments  :  Ministry  of  the 
Interior,  for  Home  Affairs  ;  Ministry  of  Hacienda 
(Finance)  ;  Ministry  of  War  and  Marine  ;  Ministry 
of  Fomento  (National  Development,  Agriculture, 
Commerce,  and  Industry)  ;  Public  Works  Depart- 
ment ;  Ministry  of  Education  ;  the  special  province 
of  each  being  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  name. 
There  is  also  a  Government  Council  of  ten 
members  appointed  to  advise  the  President,  who  has 
his  State  Secretary  and  Chaplain  ;  the  presiding 
officer  of  this  Council  takes  charge  during  the 
absence,  or  in  case  of  the  death,  of  the  President. 
The  executives  of  the  State  Governments  are  similarly 
constituted,  but  here  both  President  and  Government 
Councillors  are  Federal  officers,  while  the  District 
Jefaturas  Civiles  are  also  supported  at  Federal 
charges.  It  should  be  explained  that  there  are  Jefes 
Civiles  (Commissioners  of  Police  and  Chief  Magis- 
trates) for  each  district,  while  under  these  as 
municipal  officers  are  the  Jefes  Civiles  of  rural 
districts    and    towns     {municipios). 

The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the  National  and 
State  Legislatures  and  the  Municipal  Councils.  The 
Congress  of  the  United  States  of  Venezuela  consists 
of  two  Chambers — one  of  Senators  and  the  other  of 
Deputies.  The  Deputies  (i  to  35,000  of  the  popula- 
tion, or  portion  of  this  number  greater  than  half) 
are  elected  by  the  citizens  of  each  State  and  serve 
a  term  of  four  years  ;  they  must  be  Venezuelan  by 
birth  and  over  twenty-one  years  of  age.  Two 
Senators  are  elected  by  each  State  Legislative 
Assembly,  and  they  also  remain  in  office  for  four 
years  ;  the  Constitution  requires  all  to  be  Venezuelan 
by  birth  and  over  thirty  years  of  age.  In  case  of 
dispute  a  joint  session  is  provided  for,  and  Bills 
finally  sanctioned  by  both  Chambers  become  law, 
and  are  thereupon  communicated  to  the  President  as 


MODERN    VENEZUELA  111 

head  of  the  Executive  for  publication  in  the  Gaceta 
Oficial  and  administration   by  his   officers. 

Justice  is  administered  by  the  Cortc  Federal  y  de 
Casacion,  whose  members  arc  appointed  by  Congress, 
and  by  lower  courts  and  tribunals  throughout  the 
country  ;  the  territorial  judges  are  national  func- 
tionaries, but  judicial  powers  in  the  State  are  wielded 
by  Federal  officers,  while  the  municipal  courts  are 
the  same  throughout  the  country. 

The  law  prohibits  foreigners  from  taking  any  part 
in  politics,  but  in  other  matters  they  have  equal 
rights  with  Venezuelans,  as  regards  personal  liberty, 
free  correspondence,  safety  of  life  and  limb,  &c. 
There  are  three  principal  general  codes— civil, 
criminal,  and  commercial,  the  last  named  including 
special  regulations  for  foreign  companies.  A  new 
revised  mining  code  was  sanctioned  on  June  29,  19 10. 
')  The  laws  make  marriage  a  civil  contract  with  or 
without  a  religious  ceremony,  but  in  the  country 
districts  the  people  seem  to  prefer  no  ceremony  at 
all  to  one  not  conducted  by  a  priest  ;  and  as  the 
latter  are  few  and  their  fees  often  exorbitant,  it 
results  that  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  births  in 
any  year  are  (most  unjustly)  recorded  as  illegitimate. 
\  While  sanitation  and  hygiene  have  not  as  yet 
received  sufficient  attention  to  reduce  the  death  rate 
in  what  appears  to  be  a  naturally  healthy  country 
to  its  possible  level  (see  p.  36),  a  large  number 
of  officials  are  employed  in  the  departments  of  public 
health,  and  the  authorities  are  now  in  possession  of 
data  which  have  made  them  thoroughly  alive  to  the 
needs  of  the  country  in  this  particular.  Arrange- 
ments have  already  been  made  with  a  British  firm 
for  an  up-to-date  system  of  sanitation  of  the  capital. 
There  were,  in  1908,  52  philanthropic  institutions  in 
the  republic  under  Government  control,  consisting 
of  the  following  :  27  hospitals,  2  leper  asylums, 
2    lunatic    asylums,    9    homes    for    blind    and    aged 


112  VENEZUELA 

persons,  and  12  orphanages.  The  number  of  inmates 
at  the  close  of  that  year  was  3,244,  but,  as  might  be 
expected,  the  remoter  regions  of  the  country  are 
absolutely  unprovided  for,  and  many  parts  of  the 
central  and  western  regions  are  as  yet  without 
establishments  for  public  assistance, 
ip  In  a  similar  manner  provision  is  made,  more  or 
less  adequately,  for  education  in  the  central  area, 
and,  in  fact,  throughout  the  old  province  of  Vene- 
zuela ;  but  outside  this  the  number  of  establishments 
decreases  to  nil  in  the  Amazonas  territory,  while  in 
the  40,000  square  miles  of  the  Delta  there  are  only 
2  municipal  schools.  There  are  in  the  repubhc  1,404 
elementary  schools  with  48,869  pupils,  102  institu- 
tions for  secondary  education  with  2,189  pupils; 
and  for  higher  and  technical  education  there  are  3  i 
institutions  with  2,441  students,  including  2  Universi- 
ties (Caracas  and  Merida),  i  school  of  engineering, 
6  seminaries  of  philosophy  and  divinity,  8  schools 
of  fine  arts,  and  14  of  arts  and  crafts.  Of  all  these 
establishments  rather  less  than  nine-tenths  are  sup- 
ported by  public  money,  though  more  than  half  of 
the  secondary  schools  are  private.  The  proportion 
of  males  to  females  is  in  general  about  as  10  is  to  8  ; 
but  there  is  no  provision  for  women  in  the  Universi- 
ties, and  save  for  the  schools  of  fine  arts  the  pro- 
portion of  females  to  males  in  the  higher  departments 
is  below  the  average  for  all  classes  of  instruction. 
V  The  currency  of  Venezuela  is  established  upon  a 
gold  standard,  with  ;the  result  that  there  is  none  of  the 
depreciated  coinage  which  constitutes  one  of  the 
curses  of  the  neighbouring  State  of  Colombia.  The 
monetary  unit  is  the  bolivar,  equivalent  to  the  French 
franc,  the  London  rate  of  exchange  being  generally 
25.25  ;  this  is  divided  into  100  centimos,  and  the 
system  is  therefore  in  theory  extremely  simple  ;  since, 
however,  there  is  in  practice  a  multiplicity  of  terms 
and   coins,   it    is   a   matter   of   time   for   the    visiting 


y 


MODERN    VENEZUELA  113 

foreigner  to  become  sufficiently  familiar  with  both 
to  carry  on  business  with  promptitude  and  confidence. 
The  coins  issued  by  the  Government  of  Venezuela  are 
of  gold,  silver,  and  nickel,  in  the  following  values  : 
gold,  I  GO  bolivars,  25  bolivars,  and  20  bolivars  ; 
silver,  5,  2^,  and  2  bolivars,  i,  ^,  ^,  and  i  bolivar, 
the  limit  of  legal  payments  in  silver  being  restricted 
to  sums  under  50  bolivars  ;  nickel,  I2|  centimos  and 
5  centimes,  with  which  sums  may  be  paid  not  exceed- 
ing 20  bolivars.  The  three  principal  banks,  i.e., 
the  Banco  de  Venezuela,  Banco  Caracas,  and  Banco 
de  Maracaibo,  have  the  right  at  present  to  issue  notes, 
but  these,  though  current  at  par  in  the  region  where 
the  banks  are  situated,  are  often  refused  in  more 
remote  districts.  The  following  gold  coins  are  also 
current  in  practice  ;  American  gold  pieces  of  20, 
I  o,  and  5  dollars,  the  dollar  being  reckoned  as 
5  bolivars  ;  old  Spanish  onzas  ;  and  those  issued  by 
different  Latin -American  States  both  before  and  after 
secession  from  Spain,  at  the  nominal  value  of 
So  bolivars,  but  in  both  cases  there  is  a  premium  on 
gold  coin  which  renders  the  20-dollar  piece  worth 
104  bolivars  and  the  onza  82  bolivars.  Finally,  the 
English  sovereign  is  readily  accepted  in  Caracas,  the 
premium  varying  from  4  to  i  o  per  cent,  according 
to  circumstances. 

As  an  outcome  of  this  condition  of  affairs  the 
ordinary  traveller  in  Venezuela  has,  for  the  purpose 
of  petty  commerce,  to  be  acquainted  with  three 
methods  of  reckoning.  In  La  Guaira  and  Caracas 
and  other  towns  affected  by  commerce  with  the 
LInited  States  and  the  West  Indies  dollars  and 
centavos  represent  respectively  5  bolivars  and 
5  centimos,  and  English-speaking  Venezuelans 
always  use  American  monetary  terms  ;  in  the  towns, 
however,  the  bolivar  is  often  voluntarily  used  as  the 
unit  in  speaking,  and  will  always  be  so  used  on 
request.  In  the  country  the  old  Spanish  nomen- 
8 


114  VENEZUELA 

clature  is  everywhere  employed,  having  the  real  as 
the  unit,  equivalent  to  25  centimos,  with  its  sub- 
divisions the  medio  (12^  centimos)  and  the  cuartillo 
(6^-  centimos).  In  Maracaibo  and  the  Andine  States, 
for  large  sums,  the  onza  is  employed  as  a  unit, 
or  more  commonly  the  morrocota  (20-dollar  gold 
piece).  Finally,  in  commerce  on  a  large  scale  and 
for  all  accounts,  pesos  and  centavos  are  employed, 
representing  respectively  4  bolivars  and  4  centimos  ; 
there  are  no  coins  corresponding  to  these  sums,  and 
in  writing  the  dollar  sign  is  used,  a  practice  bound 
to  lead  to  some  confusion  when  the  sign  is  occa- 
sionally used  in  the  correct  way.  Thus,  a  trades- 
man will  present  a  bill  for  $12.50 — i.e.,  \2\  pesos 
or  50  bolivars,  the  proper  market  price  for  the  article 
supplied,  and  will  receive  from  a  new-comer  (who 
may  think  the  figure  dear,  but  remembers  that  he 
is  buying  goods  imported  under  a  heavy  tariff)  the 
sum  of  $  1 2|,  which  gives  an  unscrupulous  seller  an 
extra  profit  of  12.50  bolivars.  Throughout  the 
country,  however,  people  know  the  Venezuelan  terms, 
and  can  be  asked  to  explain  any  account,  verbal  or 
otherwise,    in   bolivars   or   centimos. 

The  metric  system  is  in  general  use  throughout  the 
civilised  parts  of  the  country, 

I  As  in  all  Spanish  and  most  American  cities,  the 
towns  of  Venezuela  are  regularly  laid  out,  with  a 
plaza  or  square  as  centre,  from  which  roads  diverge 
towards  the  four  cardinal  points.  Round  the  plaza 
are  generally  the  Government  offices,  the  church,  and 
other  principal  buildings  or  private  houses  ;  the 
ground  within  the  square  is  either  occupied  by 
gardens  or  trees  or  (in  the  smaller  towns  and 
villages)  is  grass -covered.  Away  from  the  centre 
the  streets  show  little  sign  of  arrangement  in  the 
buildings,  old  Spanish  houses  of  imposing  design 
standing  out  here  and  there,  conspicuous  among  the 
smaller,  more  modem  edifices. 


MODERN    VENEZUELA  115 

The  doors  of  the  houses  open  directly  on  to  the 
pavement,  if  there  is  one,  and  a  wall  with  a  few 
windows,  and  sometimes  none,  is  all  that  meets  the 
eye  of  the  passer-by.  Inside,  however,  in  all  the 
older  and  better-built  modern  residences  the  short 
passage  opens  into  a  patio,  generally  full  of  palms, 
trees,  and  flowers,  and  having  a  fountain  in  the  centre. 
Round  the  patio  there  is  a  covered  veranda  with 
doors  opening  into  living-rooms  and  bedrooms  pn 
the  different  sides.  From  beautiful  and  elegant  courts 
like  this  there  is  every  grade  to  the  bare  yard,  with 
perhaps  only  one  or  two  banana-plants.  At  the  back 
are  the  kitchens,  and  in  general  a  second  patio,  with- 
out trees  or  shrubs,  and  having  stalls  for  the  horses 
or  mules  on  one  side  ;  there  are  generally  several 
pigs  and  numerous  chickens  running  about  here. 

In  the  country  places  the  furniture  of  the  houses 
is  very  simple  :  a  few  chairs,  some  or  all  of  which 
may  be  home-made  and  of  hide  stretched  over 
wooden  frames  of  all  shapes,  tables,  and  one  or  two 
stands  for  glasses,  &c.,  complete  the  inventory  for 
the  ordinary  rooms  ;  pictures  are  rare  and  not  in- 
frequently are  limited  to  lithograph  calendars  and 
coloured  advertisements  received  from  the  more 
advanced  business  houses. 

The  stranger  is  not  as  a  rule  invited  to  join  the 
family  circle,  but  if  he  is  admitted,  on  account  of 
introductions  from  mutual  friends,  he  will  find  the 
traditions  of  Spanish  hospitality  carried  out  to  the 
full,  and  all  that  the  house  aft'ords  is  at  his  disposal. 
The  elaborate  lace  edging  of  the  linen,  particularly 
of  the  pillow-cases,  is  another  characteristic  shared 
in   common   with   other   Spanish   peoples. 

Maize  forms  the  staple  grain  of  the  country,  though 
in  the  east  especially  cassava  is  an  equally  important 
foodstuff,  and  sometimes  entirely  replaces  corn,  for 
a  large  proportion  of  the  people.  The  maize  flour 
is    generally   made    with    water    into    cakes    {arepa). 


116  VENEZUELA 

rather  like  curling-stones  in  shape,  about  4  inches 
in  diameter,  which  arc  lightly  baked  and  brought 
to  the  table  warm  :  a  variation  of  these,  generally 
considered  somewhat  of  a  luxury,  are  known  as 
hollas,  which  are  sausage -shaped  rolls  of  fine  maize 
flour.  In  the  Andes  dark-coloured  bread  {pan  de 
trigo)  of  native  wheat  flour  is  generally  eaten,  and 
in  every  large  town  white  bread  made  from  imported 
flour  can  be  had.  The  cassava  root  has  its  poisonous 
juices  extracted  in  a  long  straw  tube  which  contracts 
in  diameter  as  it  is  extended  in  length,  thus  pro- 
viding the  necessary  pressure  ;  the  dry  material  is 
ground  to  the  consistency  of  oatmeal,  and  made  into 
large  flat  cakes,  which,  when  baked,  are  often 
two  feet  across  and  extremely  hard.  The  broken 
cake  as  placed  on  the  table  is  often  soaked  in  water 
to  soften  it.  Cassava  bread,  like  arepa,  is  of  more 
than  one  quality^  according  to  the  fineness  to  which 
the   material  is   ground. 

In  the  coast  regions  came  seca  (dried  beef)  forms 
an  important  item  in  general  diet,  while  came  de 
chivo  (goat's  flesh)  is  a  staple  in  Coro.  Fresh  meat 
is  of  course  the  rule  in  the  towns,  and  fowls  are 
everywhere  abundant  ;  the  sancoche  de  gallinay  a 
kind  of  rich  stew  made  of  chicken  with  herbs  and 
oil,  is  very  good  if  properly  prepared.  For  other 
articles  of  diet,  yams  and  frijoles  (beans)  are  the 
commonest  vegetables,  with  potatoes  in  the  Andes, 
while  fruit  preserves  and  similar  sweets  are  found 
everywhere.  Last,  but  not  least,  the  cheeses  of  the 
Llanos  and  foothills  (of  which  queso  de  mano  is 
perhaps  the  best)  and  the  ubiquitous  papelon  (brown 
unrefined  sugar)  are  an  important  item  in  the  country 
fare. 

A  refreshing  and  sustaining  drink  known  as 
guarapo  also  consists  of  raw  sugar  and  water,  and 
this  with  the  aguardiente,  distilled  from  the  fer- 
mented syrup,  and  coffee  are  to  be  seen  everywhere. 


MODERN    VENEZUELA  117 

Cacao  is  less  common,  but  is  naturally  largely  drunk 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  plantations.  A  light 
beer  is  made  at  the  Caracas  and  Maracaibo  breweries, 
and  there  is  a  multitude  of  sweet  non-alcoholic  drinks 
manufactured   from   fruits. 

The  meals  are  in  general  as  follows  :  Cafe,  coffee, 
with  or  without  solid  food,  on  first  rising  ;  altnuerzo, 
like  the  dejeuner  of  Europe,  at  midday  ;  and  comida 
or  dinner,  at  sunset.  As  far  as  order  and  number  of 
meals  are  concerned,  Caracas  is  like  the  rest  of 
the  country,  but  the  remarks  above  made  relative 
to  food  apply  in  the  main  only  to  the  provinces. 

As  for  food,  so  for  clothing,  Caracas  and  the 
large  towns  need  no  special  mention,  since  the  im- 
ported weaving  material  here  is  mainly  European 
or  American.  The  country  towns,  however,  fre- 
quently depend,  not  only  for  workmanship  but  also 
for  materials,  on  the  products  of  the  country.  The 
poorer  people  wear  simple  white  or  blue  garments, 
with  broad-brimmed  straw  hats,  and  generally  go 
barefoot  or  wear  leather  sandals  (alpargatas).  Every- 
where, however,  both  men  and  women  turn  out  on 
feast  days  in  their  finest  and  gaudiest  apparel. 
^  A  country  protected  as  regards  great  world  powers 
by  the  Monroe  Doctrine  and  their  own  international 
jealousy,  and  surrounded  by  States  where  the  density 
of  population  is  even  less  than  in  its  own  underpeopled 
lands,  has  naturally  no  need  of  great  and  expensive 
establishments  for  national  defence,  and  the  army 
and  navy  are  merely  of  a  size  sufHcient  fo^r  the  settle- 
ment of  possible  petty  disputes  with  neighbours.  The 
land  force  consists  of  5,632  officers  and  men,  and 
the  navy  employs  only  457  combatants.  These  figures 
represent  men  under  national  control  only,  though 
there  are  also  a  small  number  of  militiamen  and 
Federal  Guards  distributed  through  the  States,  paid 
by  the  Ministry  of  War  and  Marine.  This  department 
controls    also    the    pilots    and    lighthouses    round    the 


118  VENEZUELA 

coast,  and  is  responsible  for  the  execution  of  the 
surveys  for  the  mihtary  maps  of  Venezuela.  The 
total  expenditure  in  all  branches  for  1908-9  was 
Bs. 9,1 13,534.86,  or  about  £361,000. 
A  The  insignia  of  the  republic,  as  adopted  in  1836 
and  modified  by  decree  of  July  29,  1863,  consist  of 
a  flag  and  coat  of  arms.  The  flag  is  a  tricolour 
of  yellow,  blue,  and  red,  in  equal  bands,  one  above  the 
other  in  the  order  mentioned,  and  having  in  the  blue 
seven  white  stars,  representing  the  seven  original 
provinces  of  Venezuela,  grouped  in  a  circle  of  six 
round  the  seventh.  The  shield  has  three  quarterings  ; 
the  right  red  with  a  sheaf  of  corn,  as  many  ears  being 
indicated  as  there  are  States  ;  the  left  yellow,  with 
a  group  of  arms  and  flags,  crowned  with  a  laurel 
as  a  token  of  triumph  ;  the  third,  occupying  the 
whole  of  the  bottom  part  of  the  shield,  is  blue,  and 
bears  a  white  horse  rampant,  symbolising  independ- 
ence and  liberty.  Above  the  shield  there  are  two 
horns  of  plenty,  and  below  an  olive-branch  and  a 
palm-leaf,  tied  with  blue  and  yellow  ribbons,  which 
are  inscribed  Dios  y  Federacion  in  the  centre,  5  de 
Julio  de  181 1  and  Independencia  on  the  left  ;  and  the 
date  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  Vene- 
zuela {13  de  Ahril  1864)  and  Lihertad  on  the  right. 

There  is  one  decoration  in  Venezuela,  given  to 
prominent  men  in  the  country  and,  in  its  lower  classes, 
to  foreigners  whom  the  nation  delights  to  honour.  This 
is  the  Busto  de  Bolivar,  the  medal  showing  the  head 
of  the  liberator  and  the  ribbon  the  national  colours. 

There  are  in  all  237  periodicals  published  in  the 
country,  including,  besides  the  official  gazettes  of  the 
capitals,  one  or  more  of  general  interest  in  every 
State,  and  a  considerable  number  devoted  to 
scientific,  literary,  masonic,  and  other  special  subjects. 
The  State  of  Lara  had  in  1908,  according  to  the 
Venezuelan  Year-Book,  the  largest  number  of 
periodical   publications    in   the   Union. 


'"'"' "^  ^^H^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l 

^^^^^^^^^  1 

!^^   '"'^^^^^^1 

^^^^M}  .<. 

--^^^Km-' 

0\  EN  :     I. A    RAYA. 


AX    AXniXE    POSADA  :      I.A    RAYA. 


CHAPTER    VII 

THE   ABORIGINES 

The  Goajiros — Lake  dwellings— Appearance — Territory — Villages — 
Government  —  Burial  customs  —  Religion  —  Medicine-men  — 
The  Caribs — A  fine  race — Cannibalism — Headless  man  of  the 
Caura — The  Amazons — Industries — Religion — Marriage  customs 
— The  aborigines  of  Guayana — Tavera-Acosta  on  languages — 
The  Warraus — Appearance — Houses — Food — Clothing — Mar- 
riage customs — Birth — Death — Religion — Treatment  of  sick — 
The  Banibas — Appearance — Customs — Religion— Celebration  of 
puberty  of  girls— Marriage  customs — The  Arawaks — Religion — 
Early  missions  amongst  Indians — Wanted,  a  twentieth-century 
apostle. 

The  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Venezuela  preserve 
their  habits  and  racial  customs  unchanged  only  in 
two  regions  of  the  republic,  namely,  along  the 
north-west  frontier  and  in  the  vast  forests  of 
Guayana.  Elsewhere,  a  few  families  remain  in  the 
less  accessible  and  more  barren  regions,  but  the 
'*  Indians  "  have  been  in  general  absorbed  by  inter- 
marriage into  the  Spanish-speaking  Venezuela  nation, 
slowly  emerging  from  the  mixture  of  races  which 
have    at    various    times    occupied    the    territory. 

A  powerful  tribe  occupy  the  mountains  and  forests 
along  the  Colombian  frontier,  and  these  are  generally 
known  as  the  Goajiros.  Some  of  their  villages  are 
on  the  shores  of  Lake  Maracaibo,  as  at  Sinamaica, 
and  are  of  the  pile-dwelling  type  which  first  gave 
rise  to  the  name  of  the  country  ;  most  of  the  tribe, 
however,  live  as  an  independent  nation  within  recog- 
nised boundaries. 

U9 


120  VENEZUELA 

Both  men  and  women  may  be  seen  in  Maracaibo 
on  market  days,  clothed  then  in  the  white  or  blue 
garments  which  all  keep  for  contact  with  civilisation. 
In  their  own  villages  they  wear  a  less  elaborate 
costume.  The  men  are  well  built,  light  and  agile, 
with  keen  and  intelligent  faces,  but  the  women  have 
the  amorphous  figures  and  dull,  heavy  faces  which 
come  of  centuries  of  slavery  and  drudgery  for  their 
menkind.  Apparently  they  are  ethnologically  a 
branch  of  the  great  Carib  group  of  which  we  shall 
have  more  to  say  later.  As  might  be  sur- 
mised from  the  fact  of  their  independence,  the 
Goajiros  are  vigorous  and  warlike,  and  incidentally 
excellent   horsemen. 

Their  territory  extends  from  Rio  Hacha,  in 
Colombia,  down  into  the  Goajira  peninsula,  and 
across  the  Venezuelan  border  to  within  eight  or  ten 
miles  of  Sinamaica.  The  boundary  is  guarded  by 
military  pickets,  and  most  of  their  trading  is  done 
on  the  frontier,  merchants  travelling  to  this  point 
from  all  sides. 

They  live  in  small  villages  made  up  of  round 
thatched  houses,  which  at  a  distance  look  like  so 
many  ant-hills  ;  the  floor  inside  is  strewn  with  grass, 
and  on  this  the  women  and  children  work  and  sleep  ; 
the  men  spend  much  of  their  time  in  hammocks 
slung  from  the  rafters.  They  are  more  fond  of 
fighting  than  of  working,  but  in  civilised  regions 
they  are  peaceable,  and  make  excellent  boatmen, 
while  from  their  secluded  homes  they  go  out  hunting 
and  fishing,  and  are  famous  for  the  horses  and  mules 
which  they  breed.  Their  fields  are  tended  by  the 
womenfolk  or  by  the  slaves  taken  from  neighbouring 
tribes  in  battle,  and  are  of  exceptionally  large  size, 
sown  with  yuca  or  manioc,  potatoes  and  maize  ;  they 
have  banana  plantations,  but  apparently  have  never 
cultivated  cocoa  or  cofi"ee. 

In  their  homes  the  less   wealthy  members  of  the 


THE    ABORIGINES  121 

tribe  wear  the  guayuco,  or  small  apron,  of  different 
patterns,  common  to  all  the  Venezuelan  Indians,  but 
some  have  good  cloth  clothing,  trousers  and  jacket, 
with  embroidered  white  shawls  or  blankets  for  the 
men  and  long  mantles  or  knee-high  tunics  for 
the  women.  Nearly  all  the  men  carry  firearms  of 
modern  patterns. 

Each  village  has  its  cacique  or  headman,  but  they 
acknowledge  the  suzerainty  of  a  temporal  chief  or 
king  living  in  Tunja,  and  a  supreme  spiritual  prince 
or  pope  in  Iraca.  Like  the  ancient  Incas,  who 
possibly  influenced  them  and  helped  to  make  them 
what  they  are,  they  worship  the  sun,  but  little  is 
knowTi  of  their  modes  of  worship  or  religious 
festivals. 

If  one  of  the  tribe  dies  at  home  his  body  is  buried 
in  his  cattle-pen,  or  where  he  may  have  been  most 
frequently  found  in  his  lifetime,  his  clothing  and 
weapons  being  interred  with  him  for  use  in  the  happy 
hunting  grounds  to  which  he  is  shortly  to  depart. 
Their  belief  is,  however,  that  for  about  twenty-four 
hours  after  death  the  spirit  remains  near  its  dwelling, 
and  therefore  they  keep  up  a  kind  of  lyke-wake  all 
day,  not  to  mourn  for  the  departed  but  to  wish  him 
good  hunting  and  to  speed  him  on  his  way  to  the 
next  world.  At  sunset  his  spirit  departs,  no  more 
to  return. 

Along  with  their  sun-worship  is  a  belief  in  a  good 
and  evil  principle  in  Nature,  residing  in  the  spirits 
of  the  wood,  streams,  rain,  thunder,  and  so  forth. 
Probably  this  represents  the  original  animism  of  the 
nation  before  their  contact  with  the  Incas.  From 
this  animism  arises  the  custom  of  exorcising  evil 
spirits  from  the  bodies  of  the  sick.  The  sufferer 
is  shielded  by  a  curtain  from  the  rest  of  the  hut, 
and  the  medicine-man,  clothed  in  a  long  white 
mantle  or  blanket,  first  massages  the  patient  till  both 
perspire  freely,  then  flagellates  himself  till  the  blood 


122  VENEZUELA 

liows,  and  finally,  casting  a  powder  into  the  fire, 
which  sends  u'p  clouds  of  blue  smoke,  dances  himself 
into  convulsions,  until  from  sheer  exhaustion  he  sinks 
to  the  ground,  covered  with  the  white  mantle  ;  the 
fire  is  allowed  to  die  down,  and  the  sick  man  and 
his  doctor  are  left  alone  in  the  darkness  and  silence. 

As  we  have  said,  these  Goajiros  appear  to  be  a 
family  of  the  Carib  group,  but  while  they  remain 
v^here  they  were  at  the  time  of  the  conquest,  their 
relations  eastward  have  been  driven  southwards  or 
absorbed  by  the  white  races,  just  as  they  themselves 
at  an  earlier  date  drove  back  the  aborigines,  who 
now,  with  them,  people  the  forests  of  Guayana. 

The  Caribs  probably  spoke  more  than  one  dialect 
when  they  first  invaded  the  mainland  from  the  islands 
of  the  Caribbean,  but  now  the  number  of  the  tribes 
and  languages  considered  by  Sefior  Tavera-Acosta  to 
belong  to  the  group  is  about  thirty,  including  the  fol- 
lowing :  Caribe,  Tamanaco,  Otomak,  Maquiritare  or 
Uayungomo  (also  spelt  Guayungomo  and  W.aiomgomo. 
In  every  case  for  names  beginning  with  U  there  is 
the  alternative  spelling  with  the  unsounded  Spanish  G, 
and  B  and  V  are  interchangeable),  Maco  or  Maca- 
pure,  Cuacua  or  Mapoyo,  Taparita,  Uiquire  or 
Uiquiare,  Pauare,  Pareca,  Uayamara,  Cadupinapo, 
Curasicana,  Yabarana,  Arecuna,  Macusi,  Uaica,  and 
others  of  minor  importance. 

The  members  of  these  tribes  were  those  who,  like 
the  Goajiros,  fought  most  stoutly  for  their  indepen- 
dence when  they  saw  it  menaced  by  the  conqulsta- 
dores.  These  patriots,  superior  in  many  respects, 
as  we  have  seen,  to  their  foes,  were  characterised 
by  the  European  invaders  as  cannibals,  vicious  and 
degraded,  and  the  Jesuits  later,  in  their  holy  zeal 
for  souls  {conquista  espiritual)  were  no  less  harsh 
in  their  judgments  on  those  who  naturally  resented 
the  separation  of  parents  from  children  and  husband 
from  wife  and  the  general  atrocities  of  the  self-styled 


THE    ABORIGINES  123 

Christians  who  thus  endeavoured  to  forcibly  convert 
them. 

In  reality  they  were  then,  what  they  still  are  where 
unspoilt  by  "  civilisation,"  a  fine  race  physically, 
brave  and  intelligent,  possessing,  no  doubt,  the  vices 
of  savagery,  but  also  its  virtues.  The  charges  of 
cannibalism  brought  by  the  European  exploiters  of 
the  New  World  (who  had  the  vices  of  civilisation 
and  barbarism  combined,  without  the  virtues  of 
either)  were  either  entirely  baseless,  or  due  to  the 
ignorance  which  mistook  the  limbs  of  monkeys,  which 
the  Indians  were  always  accustomed  to  eat,  for  those 
of  men.  As  we  have  seen  (Chapter  IV.),  the  only 
substantiated  cases  of  cannibalism  occurred  among 
the   conqiiistadores  themselves. 

As  an  instance  of  the  unintentional  perversion  of 
facts,  it  is  interesting  to  recall  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  century  fables  of  the  headless  men  of 
the  Caura,  the  Ewaipanomo.  The  banks  of  the  Caura 
are,  in  point  of  fact,  inhabited  by  the  Uayungoma 
branch  of  the  Caribs,  a  name  sufficiently  like  to  be 
possibly  the  same.  .Whether  that  be  so  or  no,  a 
perusal  of  Raleigh's  and  other  original  accounts  gives 
the  impression  that  some  member  of  one  of  the 
shorter  aboriginal  tribes  told  the  white  men,  by  signs, 
that  in  the  direction  of  the  Caura  were  men  whose 
shoulders  were  above  their  heads  {i.e.,  the  heads 
of  the  speakers).  I  put  this  forward  as  a  plausible 
hypothesis  for  the  origin  of  the  fable,  which  may 
not  commend  itself  to  all,  but  may  be  compared 
with  that  advanced  by  various  writers  to  explain  the 
legend   of  the   Amazon   communities   of  this   region. 

The  story  of  manless  villages  and  tribes  was  told 
(and  doubtless  is  still  told)  to  nearly  all  travellers 
in  Guayana  and  Brazil,  and  it  has  been  suggested 
that  the  statements  are  founded  upon  actual  attempts 
at  emancipation  on  the  part  of  small  groups  of 
women  intelligent  enough  to  realise  the  light  esteem 


124  VENEZUELA 

in  which  they  were  held  in  the  social  organisation  of 
the  Indians,  and  their  worthiness  of  better  treatment. 
These  banded  themselves  together  in  free  villages 
in  remote  parts  of  the  forest,  were  seen  at  times  by, 
or  perhaps  fought  with,  members  of  the  normal  tribes, 
and  so  gave  rise  to  a  legend  of  a  nation  of  warlike 
independent  women  living  somewhere,  but  no  man 
knew  where. 

To  return  to  the  Caribs,  we  find  these  ;peoples 
at  the  present  day  inhabiting  the  forests  along  the 
banks  of  the  Caroni,  Parana,  and  Caura  almost  en- 
tirely, and  particular  regions  on  the  Upper  Orinoco 
and  its  tributaries,  notably  the  Ventuari.  They  are 
still  among  the  best  formed  and  most  intelligent 
natives  of  Venezuela,  and  retain  in  their  native  haunts 
the  many  industries  by  which  they  long  ago  learned 
to  support  themselves  upon  the  produce  of  the  forest 
lands . 

These  industries  include  cultivation  of  corn  and 
manioc,  the  manufacture  of  fibres  from  the  moriche- 
palm  for  cloth,  of  simple  earthenware,  often  decorated 
with  hieroglyphics  in  colour,  of  pigments  for  this 
and  for  painting  their  bodies  in  wartime.  Their 
arrows  are  often  poisoned  with  curare,  the  concen- 
trated and  congealed  sap  of  the  mavacure  creeper, 
sometimes  also  with  the  extracted  juice  of  the 
poisonous  manioc.  From  the  pith  of  the  moriche- 
palm  they  obtain  a  kind  of  sago-meal,  and  this, 
with  maize  flour,  bitter  and  sweet  manioc  or  cassava- 
bread,  and  fish-paste  or  meat  from  their  hunting 
expeditions,  forms  their  staple  diet.  Their  canoes 
are  of  bark  or  dug  out  of  the  solid  trunk  with  the 
aid  of  stone  or  flint  hatchets  or  fire.  For  hunting 
and  war  they  had  in  early  times  good  bows  and 
arrows,  spears  of  hard,  heavy  wood,  shields  of  plaited 
creepers  covered  with  hides  of  manati,  tapir,  or 
jaguar.  Nor  were  they  without  musical  (?)  instru- 
ments,   of    which    the    maracas    or    rattles    of    small 


THE    ABORIGINES  125 

dried  calabashes  are  used  all  over  Venezuela  in  the 
country   districts   to-day. 

Their  religious  beliefs  appear  to  be,  generally 
speaking,  those  of  the  Goajiros  without  the  sun-wor- 
ship, and  birth,  marriage,  and  death  customs  are 
much  alike  amongst  all  the  tribes,  whether  Carib  or 
no.  The  only  difference  here  is  that,  in  place  of 
the  usual  marriage  by  consent  without  any  religious 
ceremony,  at  the  time  of  their  conquest  of  the  main- 
land, they  adopted  in  part  a  marriage  by  capture, 
which   has   otherwise   never   been   their   custom. 

The  principal  tribes  of  the  aborigines  of  Guayana 
are  thus  enumerated,  with  their  distribution  and 
general  characteristics,  by  Tavera  Acosta,  the  spel- 
ling of  the  names  being  changed  in  some  cases. 

(i)  The  Warraus  or  Guaraunos  (see  note,  p.  122) 
of  the  Delta  ;    dull,  unintelligent,   and  dirty. 

(2)  Arawaks,  south  of  the  Delta  ;  intelligent, 
gentle,    and    exceptionally   cleanly. 

(3)  Banibas,  a  branch  of  the  Quichua  nation  living 
on  the  Guainia  or  Rio  Negro  and  Atabapo  ;  intelli- 
gent, gentle,  and  of  a  sedentary  mode  of  life,  excel- 
lent   boatmen   and   hammock-makers. 

(4)  Guahibos  or  Uajibas,  on  the  Vichada  ;    dirty. 

(5)  Barias,  on  the  Baria,  Casiquiare,  and  Rio 
Negro  ;    good  workers  and  boatmen. 

(6)  Yaviteras,   at  Yavita  ;    like   the   Barias. 

(7)  Piaroas,  including  the  Maipures  and  Atures  ; 
living  on  the  Sipapo,  Cataniapo  and  Mataveni  ;  timid 
and  agricultural. 

(8)  Puinabi  or  Guaipunavi,  on  the  Inirida  ;  intel- 
ligent, but  fierce. 

(9)  Caruzana  or  Marapizanos  ;  on  the  Guainia, 
and  neighbouring  rivers,   cultivators  of  manioc. 

(10)  Wareca  or  Guareca,  at  San  Miguel  and 
Baltazar  ;     intelligent   and   industrious. 

(11)  Piapocos  and  Salibas,  on  the  Guaviare,  &c.  ; 
agricultural. 


126  VENEZUELA 

(12)  Guaharibos,  round  the  head-waters  of  the 
Orinoco  ;     savage. 

(13,  14,  and  15)  Guaicas,  Pasimonabis,  and 
Mandawaks,   on   the   Casiquiare,   &c.  ;     agricultural. 

(16)   Yaruros. 

Of  these  the  Piaroas,  Guarecas,  Piapocos  and  Sali- 
bas,  Pasimonabis,  and  Mandawaks  are  becoming  ex- 
tinct or  are  leaving  Venezuela  for  neighbouring 
countries.  It  may  be  noted  that  many  place-names, 
such  as  Guarico,  Achaguas,  Apure,  Mucuchies,  are 
those  of  extinct  tribes  or  of  branches  of  those  given 
above. 

Tavera-Acosta  finds  the  languages  spoken  by  these 
people  divisible  into  three  main  groups,  but  some 
appear  to  have  an  admixture  of  Parian  or  Carib 
words.  It  is  interesting  to  note  his  statement  that 
the  common  Chinese  root  chi  abounds  in  all  the 
dialects  of  Guayana,  and  the  system  of  counting  is 
Mongolian.  In  addition,  he  states  that  the  languages 
show  some  Malayan  affinities. 

The  most  numerous  tribes  appear  to  be  the 
Warraus  or  Guaraunos,  the  Baniloas  (a  branch  of 
the  ancient  Quichua  stock  of  the  Rio  Negro),  and 
the  Arawaks  ;  these  last,  however,  are  chiefly  to 
be  found  in  British  Guiana. 

The  Warraus  occupy  the  Delta  of  the  Orinoco,  and 
extend  into  the  lowlands  of  British  Guiana,  having 
everywhere  retained  their  racial  characters  to  an  un- 
usual extent.  Their  language  appears  to  be  akin 
to  the  Carib  group  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Arawak 
on  the  other,  while  the  people  themselves  have  at 
times  been  considered  as  an  offshoot  of  the  Carib 
nation. 

They  are  dark  copper  in  colour,  well  set  up,  and 
strong,  though  not  as  a  rule  tall,  and  with  low  fore- 
heads, long  and  fine  black  hair,  and  the  usual  high 
cheek-bones  and  wide  nostrils  of  the  South  American 
"  Indians."     Where  they  have  not  come  into  contact 


THE    ABORIGINES  127 

with  civilisation  they  are  particularly  shy  and  reticent, 
but  they  soon  lose  this  character,  and  some  are  said 
to  show  considerable  aptitude  as  workmen. 

Living  as  they  do  mainly  in  the  Delta,  their  houses 
are  of  necessity  near  water  and  are  raised  from  the 
ground  as  a  protection  against  floods,  being  some- 
times, it  is  said,  even  placed  on  platforms  in  trees. 
The  roof  is  supported  in  the  middle  by  two  vertical 
posts  and  a  ridge  pole,  and  is  composed  of  palm- 
leaves,  supported  at  the  corners  by  stakes.  The  sides 
of  this  simple  hut  consist  of  light  palm-leaf  curtains, 
and  the  floor  is  of  palm -planks.  The  hammocks  are 
slung  on  the  ridge  pole,  and  the  bows  and  arrows  of 
the  occupants  fixed  in  the  roof,  while  their  household 
furniture,  consisting  of  home-made  earthenware  pots, 
calabashes  of  various  sizes,  &c.,  lie  promiscuously 
about  the  floor.  Some  of  the  Warraus  are  nomadic 
and  live  in  canoes,  but  the  majority  are  grouped 
in  villages  of  these  huts,  with  captains  responsible 
to  the  Venezuelan  local  government  authorities. 

The  staple  diet  of  these  people  is  manioc  and 
sago,  with  chicha  (a  mixture  of  manioc  meal  and 
water) .  For  clothing  they  dispense  with  everything 
in  their  homes,  except  the  buja  or  guayuco,  a  tiny 
apron  of  palm-fibre  or  ordinary  cloth,  held  in  position 
by  a  belt  of  palm-fibre  or  hair.  That  worn  by  women 
is  triangular,  and  often  ornamented  with  feathers  or 
pearls.  Among  the  whites  the  men  always  wear 
a  long  strip  of  blue  cloth,  one  end  of  which  passes 
round  the  waist,  the  other  over  the  shoulder,  hanging 
down  in  front  ;  the  women  have  a  kind  of  long 
sleeveless  gown.  For  ornament  they  wear  necklaces 
of  pearls,  or  more  frequently  of  red,  blue,  and  white 
beads,  and  tight  bracelets  and  bangles  of  hair  or 
curagua  (palm-fibre)  ;  some  pierce  ears,  nose,  and 
lower  lips  for  the  insertion  of  pieces  of  reed,  feathers, 
or  berries  on  fete  days.  The  characteristic  dull  red 
paint  on  their  bodies  is  intended  to  act  as  a  preventive 


128  VENEZUELA 

against  mosquitoes,  and  it  is  made  by  boiling  the 
powdered  bark  and  wood  of  a  creeper  in  turtle  or 
alligator  fat.  All  hair  is  removed  from  the  body  by 
the  simple  but  painful  process  of  pulling  each  one 
out  with  a  split  reed. 

Marriage,  as  is  usual  among  savage  races,  takes 
place  at  a  very  early  age,  the  husband  being  often 
only  fourteen,  the  wife  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age. 
Polygamy  is  common,  but  not  universal  ;  where  a 
chief  or  rich  man  has  several  wives  the  first,  or  the 
earliest  ,to  become  a  mother,  takes  charge  of  the 
establishment  during  the  absence  of  the  owner  on 
his  hunting  or  fishing  expeditions.  The  girls  are 
sometimes  betrothed  at  the  age  of  five  or  six  years, 
living  in  the  house  of  the  future  husband  from  that 
time  on. 

At  birth  the  mother  is  left  in  a  separate  house 
alone,  where  all  food  that  she  may  need  is  placed 
for  her,  though  she  remains  unvisited  by  any  of  her 
companions  throughout  the  day  ;  meanwhile  the 
father  remains  in  his  hammock  for  several  days, 
apparently  owing  to  a  belief  that  some  evil  may 
befall  the  child  ;  there  he  receives  the  congratula- 
tions of  the  villagers,  who  bring  him  presents  of 
the  best  game  caught  on  their  expeditions.  This 
male  child-bed  or  coavade  is  common  to  many  of 
the  Indian  tribes. 

The  dead  are  mourned  with  elaborate  ceremony — 
shouting,  weeping,  and  slow,  monotonous  music  ;  the 
nearest  relatives  of  the  defunct  cut  their  hair.  The 
body  is  placed  in  leaves  and  tied  up  in  the  hammock 
used  by  the  owner  during  life,  and  then  placed  in 
a  hollow  tree-trunk  or  in  his  canoe.  This  rude  coffin 
is  then  generally  placed  on  a  small  support,  con- 
sisting of  bamboo  trestles,  and  so  left  in  the  deserted 
house  of  the  dead  man. 

The  beliefs  of  the  Warraus  have  been  somewhat 
modified  by  contact  with  foreigners,  and  perhaps  on 


ipyiSijg^^^aF 


THE    ABORIGINES  129 

this  account  they  speak,  according  to  Plassard,  of 
one  Supreme  Being,  the  Gebu,  superior  to  all  the 
lesser  spirits  of  plenty^  famine,  fire,  and  all  pheno- 
mena of  Nature.  Earthquakes  are  looked  upon  as 
good  signs,  indicating  the  presence  of  a  healthy, 
invigorating  spirit  in  the  earth  ;  a  belief  not  so 
strange  when  it  is  remembered  that  in  the  alluvial 
plains  where  the  Warraus  live  earthquakes  have 
seldom  been  sufficiently  violent  to  do  harm. 

The  religious  rites  of  the  communities  are  pre- 
sided over  by  the  Wicidatu,  like  the  piache,  a  mixture 
of  priest  and  medicine-man.  Their  worship  includes 
invocations  against  disease  and  famine,  and  prayers 
for  good  hunting.  To  Gebu  and  the  lesser  spirits 
they  offer  the  first-fruits  of  their  harvest,  vegetable 
and  animal  alike,  at  the  one  great  festival  of  the 
year,  for  which  elaborate  preparations  are  made.  All 
the  previous  day  is  spent  in  preparing  provisions, 
and  at  dawn  on  the  feast  day,  their  bodies  decorated 
with  lines  in  blue  and  red,  they  surround  the  house 
of  the  wicidatu.  The  priest  shortly  comes  forth,  a 
crown  of  feathers  on  his  head,  and  holding  a  pair 
of  maracas.  Shaking  these,  he  leads  the  crowd  to 
the  raticho,  or  hut,  set  apart  for  the  off"erings,  and 
there,  sitting  on  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  smokes  and 
chants  (accompanying  himself  with  the  maracas)  to 
Gebu,  in  whose  name  he  presently  takes  the  off"erings. 
After  this  he  holds  a  maraca  in  the  air  at  the  length 
of  his  arm,  shaking  it,  and  after  a  time  bringing 
it  down  to  his  mouth.  Then,  in  a  disguised  voice, 
supposed  to  be  that  of  Gebu,  he  asks  why  he  is 
called  ;  in  reply  the  wicidatu  salutes  and  offers  the 
first-fruits,  which  are  accepted.  This  acceptance  is 
the  signal  for  a  general  chant  of  the  assembly  re- 
counting their  petitions,  which  Gebu,  speaking  as 
before  through  the  priest,  promises  to  consider. 
Finally,  the  priest  alone  sings  a  song  of  farewell,  and 
Gebu  returns  to  his  heaven.     The  ceremonies  over. 


130  VENEZUELA 

the  wicidatu  takes  the  best  of  the  food  and  drink, 
and  the  remainder  provides  refreshment  during  the 
dancing  and  revels  w^hich  occupy  the  rest  of  the  day. 

In  addition  to  conducting  this  pubHc  worship  the 
w^icidatu  acts  as  doctor  in  times  of  sickness,  making 
use  of  certain  simples  and  invocations  to  the  spirits 
of  the  disease.  Religious  ceremonies  are  performed 
round  the  hut  by  night,  and  the  medicine-man  enters 
with  a  cigar  of  tobacco  and  herbs  and  blows  the 
smoke  on  to  the  abdomen  and  chest  of  the  patient. 
After  the  fumigation  he  is  left  alone  for  some  time, 
until  the  wicidatu  returns,  dances  and  prostrates  him- 
self round  the  hut,  performs  the  fumigation  once 
more,  and  finally  retires,  leaving  the  sick  man  to 
recover  or  die,  according  to  the  manner  in  which 
the  spirit  has  been  affected  by  the  supplications. 

Not  only  are  the  Banibas  probably  the  most 
numerous  of  the  many  tribes  of  the  hinterland  of 
Guayana,  but  they  are  considered  by  Tavera-Acosta 
to  be  the  most  advanced  of  them  all.  A  description, 
therefore,  of  their  principal  customs  may  be  taken 
as  a  sufficient  indication  of  the  tendency  of  the  beliefs 
and  practices  of  other  aborigines  of  the  interior. 

The  Banibas  are  found  chiefly  along  the  Guainia 
and  the  Atabapo  Rivers,  their  villages  extending  into 
Brazil  and  Colombia.  They  are  said  to  be  intelligent 
and  peaceable,  of  a  sedentary  mode  of  life,  excellent 
boatmen  and  hammock-makers.  Tavera-Acosta, 
adopting  the  view  that  they  are  a  branch  of 
the  ancient  Quichua  nation,  gives  d'Orbigny's  descrip- 
tion of  the  latter  thus  :  "  The  head  is  oblong,  nose 
long,  slightly  aquiline,  eyes  horizontal,  profile  almost 
European,  though  the  cheek-bones  are  higher.  They 
are  serious,  somewhat  melancholy,  industrious,  with 
an  intelligent  expression,  but  reserved.  Neither  red 
nor  copper  in  colour,  but  bronze.  The  foot  is  small, 
but  instep  rather  high." 

Their  villages  are  composed  of  round  conical  huts. 


THE    ABORIGINES  131 

built  of  poles  covered  with  palm-Ieavcs,  each  hut 
containing  twenty  or  thirty,  of  the  same  family.  All 
the  work  is  done  by  the  young  men  and  women,  the 
elders  living  a  life  of  absolute  idleness  ;  the  men 
hunt  and  collect  the  rubber  and  other  produce  of  the 
forest,  travelling  about  in  canoes  ;  the  women  attend 
to  the  household  duties,  fish,  and  sow  the  small  fields 
with  maize  and  manioc.  The  hammocks  made  by 
the  Banibas  are  especially  noted,  some  being  beauti- 
fully interwoven  with  feathers  ;  the  best  have  been 
known  to  fetch  as  much  as  £40. 

Their  staple  foods  are  maize  flour,  manioc  meal,  and 
the  cakes  of  arepa  or  cassava  made  therefrom  ;  the 
meal  they  preserve  by  treating  it  with  a  preparation 
of  bitter  yuca,  known  as  murujui ;  fish,  smoked  and 
dried  tapir  meat,  and  small  game  vary  their  diet, 
and  in  default  of  other  beverages  they  drink  yucuta, 
the  chicha  of  the  Warraus. 

Their  religious  beliefs  and  customs  have  been  con- 
siderably affected  by  the  presence  in  the  region  of 
Jesuits  and  other  missionaries  from  an  early  period 
in  the  Spanish  occupation  ;  hence  Roman  scapularies 
and  pagan  fetiches  are  found  side  by  side,  and  their 
form  of  worship,  as  well  as  their  faith,  is  a  similar 
mixture  of  pagan  and  heathen  dogmas. 

Their  customs  as  regards  birth,  sickness,  and 
death  are  sufficiently  similar  to  the  rest  of  the 
aborigines  to  render  description  unnecessary,  but  the 
marriage  ceremony  is  bound  up  with  the  celebration 
of  the  pubescence  of  the  girls,  which  is  extraordinarily 
barbarous  in  view  of  the  high  standard  of  their  morals 
and  general  character. 

When  a  maiden  of  the  tribe  attains  the  age  of 
puberty  her  mother  communicates  the  fact  to  the 
elders  of  the  village,  and  her  daughter  is  shut  up 
alone  in  a  hut,  where  she  is  expected  to  lie  in  a; 
hammock,  eating  and  drinking  only  a  little  manioc 
and  water.     Notice  being  given,  the  eligible  youths 


132  VENEZUELA 

of  the  community  apply  to  her  father  for  the  girl, 
who  is  promised  to  him  who  shall  bring  as  a  present 
the  best  piece  of  curare,  the  finest  hammock,  or 
certain  kinds  of  fish  or  game.  The  bridegroom 
having  been  thus  selected,  the  girl's  seclusion  is  over. 
She  is  led  forth,  with  eyes  bandaged  and  head  covered 
with  a  kind  of  bonnet,  to  a  stake  in  the  centre  of 
the  village,  where  the  elders  tie  up  and  beat  the 
unfortunate  damsel  with  whips  of  cord  or  fish-skin, 
sometimes  studded  with  sharp  stones  ;  the  proceed- 
ings are  accompanied  by  the  blowing  of  conches. 
The  two  senior  elders  then  advance  inside  the 
revolving  circle  and  command  the  supposed  demon 
in  the  girl  to  leave  her  and  enter  the  stake  to  which 
she  is  tied,  and  presently,  at  a  given  signal,  the 
flagellation  ceases.  The  girl,  often  fainting  from 
pain  and  weakness,  is  released  and  taken  away  to 
a  distance  ;  her  wounds  are  washed  and  soothing 
herbs  applied,  while  the  youngest  elder  present  is 
dispatched  to  advise  the  bridegroom  that  his  future 
wife  has  been  freed  from  the  demon  and  is  to  be 
found  in  such  and  such  a  place.  Then  he  goes  from 
house  to  house  shouting,  "  Come  and  burn  the  demon 
which  would  have  taken  possession  of  such  and  such 
a  girl  !  " 

Meanwhile  the  bridegroom  has  found  the  bride  and 
taken  her  to  his  father's  house,  and  the  rest  of  the 
population  is  collected  round  the  stake,  which  is  sur- 
rounded with  faggots  ;  the  women,  wearing  fringed 
belts  and  holding  one  another  by  the  waist,  dance 
round  in  a  ring  execrating  the  demon  ;  the  men  shout 
and  sing  and  drink  strong  liquors  prepared  previously 
by  the  girl's  parents.  The  bridegroom,  having  left 
the  bride  with  his  mother,  approaches  with  a  torch 
to  fire  the  pile,  and  apostrophises  the  demon,  telling 
him  that  the  girl  he  wished  to  harm  is  now  his  wife, 
paid  for  with  curare  (or  whatever  the  present  may 
have  been),  and  finally,  in  token  of  their  vengeance. 


THE    ABORIGINES  133 

he  lights  the  faggots  to  the  sound  of  a  fearful  din 
from  the  conches,  tambourines,  and  maracas.  All 
the  people  dance  up  to  the  fire  and  back  again,  the 
men  lined  up  on  one  side,  the  women  on  the  other, 
finally  circling  round  till  everything  is  consumed. 
In  this  way  the  safety  of  the  bride  from  evil  influ- 
ences is  secured,  and  she  is  recognised  henceforth  as 
the  wife  of  her  purchaser. 

Sir  Everard  im  Thurn  described  the  Arawaks,  of 
whom  there  are  many  families,  as  one  of  the  most 
advanced  groups  in  British  Guiana,  whence  they 
extend  into  Venezuela.  They  build  the  cleanest  and 
best  houses,  sometimes  square  and  sometimes  round, 
especially  on  the  savannahs.  Their  standard  of 
morality  is  high,  and  their  religious  belief,  where  un- 
touched by  those  of  the  colonists,  is  a  pure  animism. 
He  notes,  however,  that  they  use  one  general  term 
very  frequently  in  apostrophising  a  heavy  rain,  severe 
thunderstorm,  or  other  unpleasant  display  of  the 
powers  of  the  air,  without  any  definite  idea  of  one 
being.  This  term,  Oenlcidu,  he  suggests,  repre- 
sents an  approach  to  recognition  of  a  single  force 
behind  all  the  phenomena  of  Nature,  which  might 
grow  into  a  belief  in  a  Supreme  Spirit.  Those  who 
wish  to  know  the  folklore  of  these  and  neighbouring 
peoples  should  turn  to  Sir  Everard's  book  on  the 
Indians  of  Guiana. 

We  have  already  seen  that,  while  the  early  Romish 
missionaries  in  the  north  of  Venezuela  did  much  good 
in  civilising  and  settling  the  Indians  there,  who  have 
since  become  amalgamated  with  the  Castilian  element, 
in  Guiana  the  atrocities  perpetrated  by  the  Jesuits 
far  outweighed  any  good  effect  produced  by  the 
lessons  of  industry  inculcated  in  the  mission  settle- 
ments. It  is  not  surprising;,  therefore,  in  view  of 
the  early  opposition  of  some  of  even  the  better 
ecclesiastics  to  the  republic,  that  foreign  priests  and 
monks    of   all    denominations    were    prohibited    from 


134  VENEZUELA 

entering  the  republic.  There  has  been  absolute  free- 
dom for  all  beliefs  within  the  country  since  1854, 
however,  and  the  State  contributes  to  the  support  of 
the  Catholic  churches  throughout  the  land,  while 
reserving  the  right  to  make  all  ecclesiastical  appoint- 
ments and  to  admit  or  reject  papal  bulls  as  it  sees  fit. 
These  remarks  are  made  here  in  partial  explana- 
tion of  the  absence  of  any  recent  attempts  on  the 
part  of  any  branch  of  the  Christian  Church  to  convert 
or  civilise  the  natives  of  Guayana.  There  is  little 
inducement  for  the  409  priests  who  serve  the  547 
churches  of  the  country  to  penetrate  the  unattractive 
regions  of  Guayana,  and  no  Protestant  missionaries 
have  been  found  willing  to  sacrifice  their  nationality 
in  order  to  take  up  the  work.  Yet  these  Indians  are 
fine  material  for  a  sincere  apostle  to  work  upon,  and 
were  they  given  an  incentive  to  use  their  time  well, 
the  talents  of  the  best  among  them  might  soon  lessen 
the  distance  between  that  visionary  prosperous  future 
of  Guayana  and  the  present  day,  when  both  land  and 
inhabitants  are  standing  still  amid  the  progress  of 
the   world. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

THE   STATES   OF   THE   "CENTRO" 

La  Guaira — Heat— Port  works — The  Brighton  of  Venezuela — Sugar 
plantations — Streets  and  botiquins — Giiarapo — La  Guaira-Caracas 
Railway — A  great  engineering  feat— Caracas — Climate — Popu- 
lation— Streets — Buildings — The  Salon  Eliptico — El  Calvario — 
El  Paraiso — "  La  India" — Water-supply — Trams  and  telephones 
— Lighting — Industries — The  Guaire  Valley — Coffee — Miranda 
— Ocumare  del  Tuy — Petare — Central  Railway — Vegetable  snow 
— Carenero  Railway — Rio  Chico — Los  Teques — Great  Vene- 
zuelan Railway — La  Victoria — Sixteen-fold  wheat-fields— Mara- 
cay — Grazing  lands — Cheese — President  Gomez's  country  house 
— Villa  de  Cura — An  epitome  of  the  State — Lake  of  Valencia — 
Cotton — Carabobo — Valencia — Cotton  -  mills — Montalban — De- 
serted vineyards — Wild  rubber — Puerto  Cabello  Railway— The 
port — Meat  syndicate — Club — Ocumare  de  la  Costa — What  is 
bad  for  man  may  be  good  for  cocoa — Minei^al  resources. 

For  obvious  reasons  the  central  region  of  Venezuela, 
round  about  the  capital,  is  that  most  frequently 
visited  by  Europeans,  and  generally  even  those 
travellers  v^ho,  at  the  call  of  science,  commerce,  or 
pleasure,  penetrate  to  other  parts  of  the  country 
first  come  into  contact  with  it  at  La  Guaira,  the  chief 
port  of  the  republic. 

The  first  settlement  in  the  neighbourhood  was 
established  some  eight  miles  to  the  westward,  and 
was  known  as  Caraballeda,  the  present  town  being 
founded  in  1588,  shortly  after  the  seat  of  government 
was  removed  from  Coro  to  Caracas.  Standing  as  it 
does  on  a  narrow  strip  of  more  or  less  level  land, 
at  the  foot  of  the  cordillera  which  here  rises  from 

135 


136  VENEZUELA 

the  water's  edge  to  the  height  of  about  5,000  feet, 
and  extending  up  the  precipitous  slopes  of  the  bare 
mountain,  the  town  is  terribly  hot  at  times.  In 
early  days  the  roadstead  must  have  been  very  unsafe, 
for  the  swell  running  on  this  coast  at  all  seasons 
prevents  secure  anchorage  outside  the  harbour. 

The  existing  port  works  belong  to  an  English 
company,  and  cost  £980,000  to  complete  ;  and  even 
so,  the  rise  and  fall  from  the  swell  is  merely  reduced, 
not  neutralised.  The  contract  for  the  La  Guaira 
harbour  was  given  to  Messrs.  Punchard  &  Co.,  who 
decided,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  roadstead  was 
open  to  the  waves  to  north  and  east  only,  that  a 
straight  east  and  west  breakwater  would  prove  most 
effective.  The  length  of  this  was  to  be  2,050  feet, 
and  the  design  allowed  for  the  enclosure  of  90  acres 
of  water  of  an  average  depth  of  30  feet,  3,100  feet 
of  quays,  and  18  acres  of  reclaimed  land.  There 
are  seldom  severe  wind-storms,  and  the  strong  swell 
with  the  resulting  huge  waves  which  break  upon  the 
coast  were  the  principal  difficulties  to  be  met.  Un- 
fortunately, as  we  have  said,  the  movement  is  not 
entirely  kept  back  by  the  breakwater.  The  work 
was  commenced  in  December,  1885,  but  the  first 
breakwater  was  destroyed  by  a  particularly  heavy 
swell  in  December,  1887  ;  the  second  was  com- 
menced in  July,  1888,  and  finally  completed,  more  or 
less  as  it  stands  to-day,  in  July,    1891. 

A  railway  runs  through  the  town  from  the  suburb 
of  Maiquetia,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  westwards, 
to  the  fashionable  watering-place  of  Macuto,  three 
miles  in  the  opposite  direction.  Here  there  is  an 
esplanade,  gardens,  and  sea-baths,  and  as  the  coast, 
in  contrast  to  La  Guaira,  faces  the  direction  of  the 
prevalent  winds,  climatic  conditions  are  pleasant.  In 
the  season  this  Brighton  of  Venezuela  is  full  of 
visitors. 

Through  La  Guaira  passes  out  the  greater  part  of 


THE   STATES   OF   THE   -  CENTRO "     137 

the  produce  of  the  "  Centro,"  and  much  from  other 
parts  of  the  country,  the  principal  exports  being 
coffee,  cacao,  cotton,  hides,  gold,  rubber,  pearls, 
feathers  (egrets'),  and  alpargatas  (sandals).  There 
are  factories  turning  out  cigars,  cigarettes,  hats, 
boots,  and  other  articles  for  home  consumption  ;  and 
at  La  Guaira  the  French  cable  enters  the  sea.  Near 
Punta  Caraballeda  there  is  the  big  Juan  Diaz  sugar- 
mill  of  Messrs.  Boulton,  surrounded  by  bright  green 
cane  plantations  ;  but  save  coconut-palms,  little  of 
value  grows  along  the  greater  part  of  this  coast 
near  the  shore. 

The  narrow  street  behind  the  quay  is  chiefly  occu- 
pied by  botiqains,  some  with  abundant  tropical  and 
temperate  fruits  of  which  cooling  refrescos  can  be 
made,  with  green  milk-coconuts  and  barrels  of  diluted 
guarapo  (sugar  syrup)  at  a  centimo  a  tumbler— not 
the  pleasantest  to  an  unaccustomed  palate  but  prob- 
ably the  most  effective  of  Venezuelan  thirst-quenchers. 
After  the  hot  sun  on  the  quay  the  little  tables  under 
the  trees  look  particularly  inviting,  though  it  is  only 
fair  to  say  that  the  unkempt  appearance  of  this  small 
fore  street  is  more  likely  to  strike  the  new-comer 
than  the  more  pleasant  matters. 

Communication  with  the  capital  is  carried  on  by 
rail  and  road,  the  former  carrying  the  express  freight, 
though  the  loaded  donkeys  and  mules  leaving  Mai- 
quetia  before  sunrise  show  that  the  railway  is  not 
without  competition.  The  road  is  well  engineered, 
and  is  about  twenty-five  miles  in  length  ;  the  un- 
macadamised  surface  is,  however,  little  used  for 
wheel-trafffc.  In  a  straight  line  Caracas  is  about 
eight  miles  from  La  Guaira,  but  stands  3,000  feet 
above  the  port,  and  is  separated  from  it  by  a  moun- 
tain range  5,000  feet  high,  over  which  climbs  the 
old  Spanish  paved  road. 

The  British-built  and  owned  La  Guaira-Cardcas 
railway  accomplishes   the  climb   in  about    23   miles, 


138  VENEZUELA 

the  ruling  gradient  being  i  in  27  to  the  head  of  the 
pass  at  3,200  feet,  whence  it  descends  200  feet  to 
the  city.  The  chief  feature  of  the  line  is  the  small 
radius  of  the  curves,  some  of  which  are  so  sharp 
that  it  has  been  said  that  the  guard  at  the  rear  of 
the  train  can  whisper  to  the  driver.  For  much  of 
the  distance  there  is  a  splendid  view  over  the 
Caribbean,  and  as  the  line  climbs  higher  up  into 
the  gorge  the  train  is  often  only  a  few  feet  from  the 
edge  of  precipices,  with  a  vertical  drop  in  some 
cases  of  over  a  thousand  feet.  De  Lesseps  said 
that  there  was  only  one  dangerous  part  of  the  line, 
but  that  that  extended  from  La  Guaira  to  Caracas. 
The  whole  is  a  fine  piece  of  engineering,  and,  not- 
withstanding the  theoretical  risks,  there  has  never 
been  an  accident  to  a  passenger  train,  thanks  to  the 
energetic  management  and  splendid  system  of 
vigilantes,  or  watchmen,  ever  on  the  lookout  for 
landslips  as  well  as  for  faults  in  the  permanent  way. 
Caracas  stands  on  the  north  bank  of  the  River 
Guaire,  on  the  inner  slope  of  the  coastal  cordillera. 
The  northern  part  of  the  city  is  thus  higher  than  the 
southern.  Founded  in  1567  by  Diego  de  L'osada, 
its  equable  climate  at  the  elevation  of  3,000  feet 
and  the  fertile  valley  in  which  it  lay  soon  attracted 
the  Government  away  from  Coro,  on  the  hot,  barren 
plains  near  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela.  The  minimum 
temperature  recorded  in  an  average  year  may  be 
as  low  as  48°  F.  (this,  of  course,  at  night),  but, 
in  general,  days  and  nights  are  mild,  and  only  in 
the  middle  of  the  year  is  the  air  uncomfortably  warm 
at  any  time  of  the  day.  The  population  was 
estimated  as  90,000  in  1904,  and  suburbs  bring  the 
total  to  over  100,000.  It  would  be  obviously  unfair 
to  institute  a  comparison  between  a  city  of  this  size 
and  any  of  the  better  known  capitals  of  Spanish- 
American  republics,  but,  considered  purely  on  its 
own  merits,   the  capital   of   Venezuela   has   much   to 


PLAZA    BOLIVAR  :     VALENCIA. 


THE   STATES    OF   THE   "CENTRO"     139 

commend  it,  and  undoubtedly  exerts  a  peculiar 
fascination   over   most   of   those   who   visit    it. 

The  streets  are  narrow,  though  the  one-storey 
buildings  make  this  hardly  noticeable,  and  are  paved 
in  the  outer  parts  of  the  city  with  cobbles,  in  the 
centre  with  cement.  Though  most  of  the  private  or 
business  houses  have  one  storey  only,  this  does  not 
apply  to  the  public  edifices,  and  the  distribution  of 
these  is  as  casual  as  in  London.  As  is  usual,  the 
principal  square  or  plaza  occupies  the  centre  of  the 
town,  and  round  it  are  grouped  the  cathedral,  Federal 
Government  offices.  Palace  of  Justice,  Archbishop's 
palace,  the  Casa  Amarilla  (containing  the  archives), 
the  G.P.O.,  and  the  principal  hotel  (the  Klindt)  of 
the  city.  The  centre  of  the  plaza  gardens  is  occupied 
by  an  equestrian  statue  of  Bolivar  in  bronze.  The 
Capitol  is  south-west  of  the  Plaza  Bolivar,  and  is 
a  large  building  in  semi-Moorish  style,  divided  by  a 
central  patio  into  two  main  portions.  The  southern 
part  is  occupied  by  the  two  Chambers  of  the  Legis- 
lature, while  the  northern  houses  the  Executive.  Part 
of  the  Executive  Palace,  as  it  is  called,  is  occupied 
by  the  Salon  Eliptico,  containing  portraits  of  famous 
patriots  and  statesmen  of  Venezuela,  conspicuous 
among  the  dark-haired  Spanish  or  Venezuelan  types 
being  the  Irishman  O'Leary.  The  dome  is  decorated 
with  a  picture  of  the  battle  of  Carabobo,  and  the 
roofs  of  the  wings  with  representations  of  those  of 
Pinchincha  and  Boyaca,  while  to  the  east  is  a  large 
picture  of  the  Congress  of  Angostura.  The  offices 
.of  the  various  departments  are  on  the  first  floor. 
Among  the  remaining  buildings  of  note  we  may  men- 
tion the  University,  an  imitation-freestone  gothic 
structure  south  of  the  Capitol,  the  Municipal  Theatre, 
the  Pantheon,  and  the  presidential  residence  (Mira- 
flores). 

On  the  hill  of  El  Calvario  west  of  the  city  is  the 
Observatory  and  the  Independenqia  Park,  from  which 


140  VENEZUELA 

a  fine  view  of  the  city  can  be  had  in  the  afternoon. 
On  the  south  of  the  Guaire,  which  is  crossed  by  two 
bridges,  is  the  Paraiso  drive,  with  the  villas  of  some 
of  the  wealthier  residents.  Here  the  society  of 
Caracas  drives  just  before  sunset,  and  we  may  note, 
in  passing,  that  the  cabs  (generally  hooded  victorias 
or  small  landaus)  are  remarkably  cheap  and  good. 
One  carries  a  walking-stick  when  driving  to  con 
the  coachman,  a  tap  on  the  right  arm  meaning  a 
turn  in  that  direction,  a  poke  in  the  middle  of  the 
back  "  stop,"  and  so  on.  Not  far  from  the  plaza 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  Municipal  Theatre  on  the 
other  is  the  restaurant  "  La  India,"  where  the  youth 
of  Caracas  indulge  in  cakes  and  ale  in  the  mornings, 
and  chocolate  (which  is  excellent),  or  less  innocuous 
liquids  after  the  theatre.  Tea,  or  at  least  afternoon 
tea,  is  uncommon  in  Caracas  ,as  yet,  though  a  growing 
British  colony  may  change  matters  in  that  respect. 
An  enumeration  of  the  plazas  and  monuments  could 
be  of  little  service,  and  still  less  a  list  of  the  various 
hospitals  and  charitable  institutions,  of  which  there 
are  many.  On  the  practical  side,  however,  it  is 
worth  noting  that  Caracas  has  two  public  slaughter- 
houses in  different  parts  of  the  city. 

The  water  supply  is  mainly  derived  from  the  River 
Macarao,  about  fifteen  miles  west  of  the  town,  whence 
it  is  brought  by  an  aqueduct  to  El  Calvario  and 
there  filtered  ;  there  are  also  reservoirs  for  the  north 
of  the  city,  deriving  their  supply  from  the  streams  of 
the  Silla  de  Caracas.  There  is  an  excellent  service 
of  trams  and  telephones,  both  started  and  controlled 
by  Britishers,  and  the  electric  supply  for  the  former 
as  well  as  for  lighting  the  city  is  derived  from  the 
falls  of  El  Encantado  and  Los  Naranjos,  on  the 
Guaire  below  Caracas.  A  new  plant  is  shortly  to  be 
erected  at  Mamo.  The  city  also  boasts  a  brewery, 
foundry,  and  factories  for  furniture-making, 
cigarettes,    matches,    &c.      The     remarks    made    in 


THE   STATES   OF   THE   -  CENTRO  "     141 

reference  to  the  trade  of  La  Guaira  apply  equally 
to  the  capital,  for  practically  all  the  merchandise 
of  the  one  passes  first  through  the  other. 

The  bottom  of  the  Guaire  Valley  near  Caracas  con- 
stitutes economically  the  most  important  part  of  the 
Federal  district,  for  the  inner  slope  of  the  Cordillera 
here  supports  only  small  forest  or  grass,  while  the 
more  accessible  parts  of  the  seaward  flank  are  barren 
and  useless.  The  sugar  plantations  of  Juan  Diaz 
have  already  been  mentioned,  but  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Caracas  there  are,  or  were,  many  of  these, 
even  though  the  climate  is  sufficiently  cool  to  have 
allowed  the  cultivation  of  wheat  in  earlier  days,  when 
the  Spaniards  found  it,  as  might  the  Venezuelans,  less 
costly  than  importation.  There  are  fine  coffee 
plantations  also  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Caracas,  and 
the  elevation  would  point  to  this  as  one  of  the  best 
cofi'ee  districts  of  the  country  ;  indeed,  the  yield 
obtained  on  some  haciendas  here  is  said  to  have 
been  as  much  as  twenty  pounds  to  the  tree. 

East  and  south  of  the  Federal  District  lies  the 
State  of  Miranda,  including  all  the  hills  to  Cape 
Codera  and  the  edge  of  the  Llanos  as  far  as  Uchire. 
The  capital  is  Ocumare  del  Tuy,  though  this  is  not 
the  largest  towoi.  Its  name  at  the  time  of  its  founda- 
tion in  1692  was  Sabana  de  Ocumare,  but  its 
proximity  to  the  River  Tuy  led  to  the  adoption  of 
the  present  name  as  a  distinction  from  Ocumare  de 
la  Costa.  Coffee  is  grown  on  the  hills  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, with  cacao  lower  down,  and  sugar  and 
beans  in  the  valleys.  The  importance  of  the  town 
is  rather  political  than  commercial  at  present,  though 
the  Central  Railway  may  some  time  reach  it  and 
make  a  centre  for  the  traffic  from  the  Llanos,  which 
lie  southward. 

Petare  was  the  largest  town  in  Miranda  at  the 
last  census,  having  then  a  population  of  nearly  7,000. 
It  was  founded  on  the  Guaire,  some  seven  miles  east 


142  VENEZUELA 

of  Cardcas,  in  1704,  and  is  a  locally  important  manu- 
facturing town,  turning  out  principally,  alpargatas, 
cigarettes,  and  starch,  the  last  named  made  from 
yuca  or  manioc. 

This  town  was  the  first  terminus  of  the  Central 
Railway  of  Venezuela,  which  was  projected  by 
Guzman  Blanco  to  travel  south-eastward  from 
Caracas  down  the  Guaire  to  its  junction  with  the 
Tuy,  then  up  the  larger  river  westwards  and  down 
the  Aragua  to  Valencia.  At  present  it  has  only 
reached  Santa  Lucia,  rather  more  than  thirty  miles 
from  Caracas,  and  the  direct  German  line  has  done 
away  with  the  necessity  of  carrying  it  through  to 
Valencia.  The  prosperous  nature  of  the  country 
under  Guzman  Blanco  made  the  enterprise  extremely 
promising,  but  the  long  series  of  revolutions  and 
counter-revolutions  since  his  day  have  kept  the 
freight  down  to  a  minimum.  Better  days  may  be 
in  store  for  the  line,  however,  when  the  owners  of 
the  rich  coffee,  cocoa,  and  sugar  lands  which  it 
taps  rise  to  their  opportunities,  and  an  extension  to 
Ocumare  should  bring  it  an  ever-increasing  amount 
of  traffic  in  the  produce  of  the  Llanos. 

All  the  way  along  the  Valley  of  the  Guaire  the 
hills  are,  in  the  season,  white  with  the  coffee-bloom, 
and  the  small  patches  of  yuca,  maize,  and  bananas 
may  yet  become  big  and  profitable  plantations. 
Beyond  Santa  Lucia  the  Guaire  joins  the  Tuy,  and 
here,  in  a  broad,  flat-bottomed  valley  full  of  sugar 
and  cacao,  stands  Santa  Teresa. 

If  we  follow  down  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Tuy 
we  come  at  length  to  the  barren,  sandy  stretch  along 
the  coast  and  its  fringe  of  mangroves,  where  we 
encounter  the  second  railway  (a  rather  primitive 
affair)  in  the  State. 

The  line  crosses  the  river  at  right  angles,  and 
connects  the  port  of  Carenero  with  the  little  town 
of  Higuerote,  a  few  miles  to  the  south,  and  with  the 


THE   STATES   OF   THE   "  CENTRO  "     143 

flourishing  manufacturing  town  of  Rio  Chico,  south 
of  the  Tuy  ;  beyond  them  it  is  continued  to  Guapo, 
on  the  way  to  the  Llanos  of  Guarico.  Rio  Chico  is 
therefore  about  twenty-four  miles  by  rail  from  its 
port,  even  though  the  open  sea  is  but  four  miles 
away.  Here  we  are  down  at  sea-level,  and  the  mean 
annual  temperature  is  82°  F.  Its  position  at  the 
edge  of  the  rich  alluvium  of  the  Tuy  brings  it  large 
quantities  of  coffee,  cocoa,  beans,  and  maize,  which 
arc  easily  transmitted  by  rail  to  Carenero,  and  thence 
conveyed  in  little  schooners  or  steamers  to  La  Guaira 
for  use  in  the  country  or  for  export.  More  important 
to  its  welfare  are  the  cattle  of  the  Llanos,  whose 
hides  are  similarly  passed  on  through  Carenero  to  La 
Guaira,  while  the  carcasses  provide  the  raw  material 
for  the  manufacture  of  soap  and  candles,  which, 
with  the  making  of  alpargatas,  constitutes  the  chief 
industry  of  the  town. 

Returning  to  Santa  Teresa,  we  can  traverse  the 
plantations  to  Ocumare,  the  capital,  and  beyond  to 
Cua,  named  after  a  famous  Indian  cacique.  Beyond 
this  there  are  no  towns  of  importance  east  of  the 
State  boundary,  but  a  road  over  the  watershed  leads 
to  Los  Teques,  at  the  head  of  the  Guaire.  This 
stands  at  a  considerably  greater  altitude  than 
Caracas,  and  is  chiefly  of  importance  to-day  as  a 
health  resort,  though  when  Faxardo  first  visited  the 
Indians  after  whom  the  place  is  named,  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  he  was  attracted  by  the  copper-mines 
of  the  district,  now  no  longer  worked. 

Los  Teques  is  the  first  town  of  importance  on 
the  Great  Venezuelan  Railway  (a  German  line)  west 
of  Caracas,  but  it  is  the  last  in  the  State  of  Miranda. 
The  train  climbs  up  a  picturesque  gorge  to  Los 
Teques,  then  passes  through  a  tunnel,  and  begins 
to  cross  by  equally  picturesque  loops  and  zigzags 
the  head  of  the  Tuy,  finally  dropping  down  into 
the   fertile  valley  of  Aragua,   from   which   the   next 


144  VENEZUELA 

State  takes  its  name.  The  western  terminus  of  the 
line  is  Valencia,  but  the  first  large  town  reached  is 
La  Victoria  (much  beloved  of  ex-President  Castro), 
the  capital  of  Aragua. 

All  along  the  line  are  evidences  of  the  agriculture 
and  sylvan  wealth  of  the  land,  in  coffee  and  sugar- 
plantations,  and  patches  of  forest  of  valuable  timber. 
La  Victoria  is  a  well-built,  handsome  town.  It  was 
founded  in  i  593  and  had  a  population  of  over  14,000 
at  the  last  census.  The  barracks  form  an  imposing 
block  of  buildings,  and  there  are  factories  on  a  small 
scale  for  cigarettes,  paper,  sandals,  boots  and  shoes, 
and  candles.  The  tobacco  and  wood  for  the  two 
first  come  from  plantations  and  forests  close  at  hand, 
and  the  considerable  traffic  from  the  Llanos,  as  well 
as  the  pasture-lands  of  the  Aragua  Valley  farther 
west,  supply  the  raw  materials  for  the  other  articles. 
There  is  a  mill  here  also  which  uses  the  cotton  of 
the  drier  parts  of  the  valley,  near  the  Lake  of 
Valencia.  The  railway,  both  before  and  after  La 
Victoria,  passes  many  cane  plantations  with  small 
refineries  and  distilleries,  turning  out  the  raw  sugar 
and  spirit  which  constitute  an  important  part  of  the 
trade  of  the  town.  A  good  deal  of  wheat  used  to 
be  grown  here,  the  fields  producing  as  much  as 
3,000  pounds  to  the  acre,  a  sixteen-fold  return,  which 
would  surely  pay  well  to-day,  when  the  heavy  duty 
on  imported  flour    (about   id.  per  lb.)  is  considered. 

Maracay,  also  on  the  railway,  near  the  east  end 
of  the  Lake  of  Valencia,  is  in  a  splendid  farming 
and  stock-breeding  country.  There  are  rich  grazing 
lands  planted  with  para  grass,  forest  for  timber,  and 
coffee,  sugar,  indigo  of  excellent  quality,  and  tobacco, 
as  well  as  cotton,  can  be  grown  in  the  vicinity. 
The  dairies  of  Maracay  produce  a  famous  cream- 
cheese,  known  by  the  name  of  the  town  throughout 
Venezuela,  and  the  hogs  of  Maracay  are  very  different 
from  the  skinny  animals  generally  seen  in  the  tropics. 


THE   STATES   OF   THE   -  CENTRO  "     145 

President  Gomez  has  a  ranch  here,  to  which  he  retires 
whenever  allowed  a  respite  from  cares  of  State. 

South  of  Maracay  at  a  distance  of  about  fifteen 
miles  is  the  main  pass  across  the  Serrania  Interior 
to  the  Llanos,  and  in  this  pass  stands  the  important 
town  of  Villa  de  Cura,  founded  in  1730.  It  is  a 
well-built  town,  standing  between  two  rivers  flowing 
in  opposite  directions  ;  the  valley  itself  is  dry  com- 
pared to  that  of  Aragua,  but  has  many  big  cattle- 
ranches,  so  that  here,  as  at  Maracay,  cheese  and  hides 
form  the  principal  articles  of  commerce.  Since  it 
derives  a  certain  amount  of  profit  from  the  cacao 
and  coffee  of  the  mills  near  by,  it  forms  in  itself 
an  epitome  of  the  wealth  of  the  State  of  Aragua, 
which,  with  its  fertile  valleys,  combines  the  products 
of  the  hills  and  forests  with  those  of  the  neighbouring 
Llanos. 

The  beautiful  Lake  of  Valencia,  with  its  many 
islands,  lies  partly  in  Aragua  and  partly  in  the  neigh- 
bouring State  of  Carabobo.  The  dry,  sandy  shores  are 
mainly  utilised  for  cotton-growing,  an  industry  which, 
like  many  others  in  Venezuela,  has  never  received 
the  attention  which  it  deserves,  because  an  ample 
return  on  capital  can  be  had  in  a  multitude  of 
enterprises  for  a  minimum  expenditure  of  labour 
and  forethought. 

In  Carabobo  we  begin  to  leave  the  more  densely 
populated  region  of  the  Centro,  and  find  something 
of  the  wildness  of  virgin  territory  away  from  the 
towns.  Thus  we  have  timber  and  dye-woods  and 
uncultivated  rubber  exported  as  well  as  the  products 
of  the  pastoral  and  agricultural  industries. 

The  capital  of  the  State  is  Valencia,  once  greater 
and  more  important  than  it  is  now,  much  of  the 
produce  of  Aragua  which  formerly  passed  through 
the  city  being  carried  eastward  by  the  Great  Vene- 
zuelan Railway,  while  the  Bolivar  Railway  now 
carries  direct  to  and  from  Barquisimeto  goods  which 
10 


146  VENEZUELA 

in  earlier  days  came  in  and  passed  out  through 
Valencia.  The  industry  of  the  inhabitants  has  saved 
the  place  from  absolute  decay,  and  the  population  at 
the  last  census   was  over    54,000. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  Valencia  is  connected 
with  the  capital  by  rail,  and  there  is  a  cart-road  for 
slow  traffic,  while  the  Telephone  Company  has  a  line 
as  far  as  Puerto  Cabello,  passing  through  Valencia. 
For  its  internal  comfort,  the  city  has  a  good  supply 
of  water  brought  by  aqueduct  from  the  hills,  tram- 
ways, electric  light,  hotels,  and  plazas.  The  public 
buildings  include  the  State  Capitol  and  Municipal 
Theatre,  and  there  is  a  column  in  the  Plaza  Bolivar 
commemorating  the  battle  on  the  campo  from  which 
the  State  takes  its  name.  The  large  cotton-mills 
testify  to  an  attempt  to  develop  the  resources  of  the 
neighbourhood  ;  flour-mills  and  cigarette-factories 
deal  with  some  of  the  produce  of  the  fertile  valleys 
to  the  west.  Coffee,  sugar,  alcohol,  live  beasts  and 
hides,  with  other  agricultural  products,  all  find  their 
way  to  the  markets  of  Valencia  ;  nor  should  the 
marble  quarries  of  the  hills  be  forgotten,  since  the 
country  may  one  day  use  more  of  its  own  ornamental 
stones  in  place  of  importing  them  over  the  high 
tariff  wall. 

Twenty-three  miles  westward  from  Valencia  (which 
by  the  way,  is  unusually  hot  for  its  elevation)  is  the 
town  of  Montalban,  higher  up  in  the  hills,  with  a 
population  of  nearly  9,000.  It  was  named  after 
Montalban  in  Aragon,  and  rejoices  in  a  mean  annual 
temperature  of  73°  F.  On  the  fertile  river  banks 
the  Montalbanians  used  once  to  grow  excellent 
grapes,  as  well  as  wheat  and  indigo  of  fine  quality. 
With  the  introduction  of  coffee  in  i  8 1 3,  it  was  found 
more  profitable  to  devote  the  land  to  that,  and  the 
cultivation  of  the  fruit,  for  which  it  was  formerly 
famous,   has   died  out. 

The  river -valleys  and  mountain -slopes  of  Carabobo 


THE   STATES   OF  THE   "  CENTRO  "    147 

are  often  forest-covered,  and  wild  rubber  is  suffi- 
ciently common  to  be  collected.  From  all  the 
western  region  of  the  State  the  produce  of  field  and 
farm  is  brought  by.  road  to  Valencia,  and  thence,  if 
intended  for  export,  sent  down  the  English  railway 
to    Puerto   Cabello. 

This  line  was  begun  during  the  construction  of 
that  from  La  Guaira  to  Caracas,  but  presented  in 
some  respects  a  less  difficult  task,  since  the  highest 
point  to  which  it  must  rise  to  cross  the  watershed 
of  the  costal  cordillera  is  only  1,950  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  original  scheme  of  ordinary,  traction 
was  changed  to  include  a  short  piece  of  8  per  cent, 
grade  with  a  rack  engine,  working  on  a  cogged 
centre  rail,  the  rest  of  the  descent  is  then  easily 
accomplished. 

Puerto  Cabello  has  one  of  the  best  harbours  in 
Venezuela,  which  possesses  the  additional  merit  of 
being  entirely  natural.  The  name  is  a  witness  to 
the  excellence  of  the  shelter,  since  the  Spaniards 
changed  Borburata  to  Cabello  in  token  of  the  fact 
that  in  calm  waters  of  the  harbour  a  ship  would  be 
held  with  a  hair  (Sp.  Cabello).  On  the  outer  side 
are  the  red  iron-roofed  buildings  of  the  Venezuela 
Naval  Dockyard,  next  door  to  the  fortress,  the  sub- 
marine dungeons  of  which  have  too  often  been 
occupied  by  innocent  men,  both  in  colonial  and  re- 
publican times.  Through  Puerto  Cabello  is  exported 
most  of  the  produce  of  Carabobo,  Yaracuy,  and  the 
Llano  States  of  Cojedes  and  Portuguesa",  with  some 
from  Lara,  Trujillo,  and  Merida.  The  new  buildings 
of  the  Venezuela  Meat  Syndicate  are  near  the  station, 
an  enterprise  which  seems  likely,  when  once  fairly 
started,  to  give  Puerto  Cabello  an  increasing  import- 
ance, in  addition  to  encouraging  improvement  in 
stock-farming.  The  various  members  of  the  staff 
make  up  a  small  English  colony,  who  are  largely 
responsible  for  the  presence  of  English  papers  in  the 


148  VENEZUELA 

waterside  club,  a  pleasant  place  to  spend  the  sultry, 
evenings. 

Round  about  the  port  there  are  numbers  of 
attractive  villas  and  plantations,  but  the  most  fruit- 
ful land  is  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ocumare,  some 
twenty  miles  eastward  along  the  coast.  The  town 
is  situated  near  the  mouth  of  a  deep  valley,  and, 
but  for  the  sea  breezes,  would  be  unbearably  hot. 
As  it  is,  the  climate  which  would,  untempered,  be 
so  unpleasant  for  men,  is  excellent  for  cocoa,  and 
that  of  Ocumare  has  a  deserved  fame.  From  the 
higher  lands  behind  come  cattle  and  cereals  to  swell 
the  trade  of  the  town,  whose  population  has  increased 
greatly  since  the  last  census. 

The  agricultural  resources  of  the  "  Centro  "  have 
received,  as  we  have  seen,  a  moderate  share  of  atten- 
tion, and  if  they  are  not  developed  to  anything  ap- 
proaching a  full  extent,  the  region  is  nevertheless 
one  in  which  less  remains  to  be  done  than  elsewhere 
in  the  republic.  There  are  said  to  be  "  mines  "  of 
all  manner  of  metals  unworked  as  yet,  particularly 
in  the  west,  but  without  months  of  work  by  a  mining 
engineer  it  would  be  impossible  to  verify  such  a  state- 
ment. At  present  all  that  can  be  said  is  that  it 
may.  be  true,  and  perhaps  some  day  the  copper,  silver, 
iron,  and  gold  of  the  Centro  will  be  established 
realities,  and  not  mere  words  in  "  accusations  "  of 
territory  for  mining  purposes. 


.MAKACAIF.O    KAV. 


1 


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i^-TTTrnnrarr'^i 


SAN    TIMOTEO  :      LAKE   (IF    MARACAIHO. 


CHAPTER    IX 
ZULIA 

The  Lake  of  Coquibacoa  in  the  sixteenth  century  and  now — Wealth 
and  importance  of  the  State — Area  and  population — Waterways 
— Forests — Mineral  wealth — Savannahs — Maracaiho— Harbour 
and  dredging  schemes — Cojoro — Wharves  and  warehouses  of 
Maracaibo — Exports — Population — German  colony — Buildings 
— Industries  — Tramways  —  Codies  —  Lake  steamers  —  Ancient 
craft — Tlie  comedy  of  the  bar — Railways — Communication  with 
Colombia — Altagracia — Santa  Rita — A  western  Gibraltar — An 
eventful  history — San  Carlos  de  Zulia — Sinamaica — Vegetable 
milk — Timber — Copaiba — Fisheries — The  "  Maracaibo  lights," 

When  Alonso  de  Ojeda,  first  of  all  Europeans, 
entered  what  was  then  the  Lake  of  Coquibacoa,  he 
was  chiefly  struck  by  the  unusual  appearance  of  the 
Indian  huts,  built  on  platforms  over  the  shallow 
waters,  and  were  it  possible  for  any  one  to-day  to 
cruise  round  the  "  lake  "  without  observing  the  port 
of  Maracaibo,  he  might  come  away  with  the  impres- 
sion that  the  greater  part  of  the  State  of  Zulia  has 
not  changed  since  the  sixteenth  century.  Strangely 
enough,  this  impression  would  not  be  far  from  the 
truth  as  regards  the  extent  of  cultivation  and  settle- 
ment, and  yet,  thanks  to  the  great  fertility  of  the 
soil  in  these  steaming  lowlands,  and  to  the  commer- 
cial importance  of  the  capital,  the  State  of  Zulia  is 
already  one  of  the  most  important  and  wealthy  in 
the  Union  of  Venezuela. 

The  area  within   its   boundaries   amounts   to  some 
23,000  square  miles,   the   greater   part   of  which   is 


150  VENEZUELA 

inhabited  (if  wc  except  the  concentrated  populations 
of  Maracaibo  and  the  Goajira  territory)  by  about 
56,000  souls.  Even  if  we  take  the  total  population 
the  density  is  but  6"4  to  the  square  mile,  in  a  State 
whose  resources  might  support  with  ease  ten  times 
that  number,  while  its  death-rate  is  one  of  the  lowest 
in  the  republic. 

Among  the  most  valuable  assets  of  the  State  are 
its  abundant  waterways.  Not  only  is  the  central 
part  occupied  by  a  brackish-water  lake  on  which 
small  goletas  or  schooners  and  steamers  can  ply, 
but  through  the  level  plains  around  flow  innumerable 
rivers,  most  of  which  are  navigable  for  the  greater 
part  of  their  length.  The  forests  which  cover  much 
of  the  area  are  at  once  a  benefit  and  a  hindrance  to 
progress,  the  valuable  timber  and  natural  products 
to  be  found  there  being  only,  in  part  a  compensation 
for  the  obstacle  they  present  to  the  increase  of  the 
much  more  valuable  cultivated  fruits.  It  would  be 
a  matter  for  regret  were  the  forests  to  be  indis- 
criminately cut  clown,  but  the  absence  of  clearings 
is  not  due  to  any  prudential  reasons  of  this  sort. 

While  the  other  resources  of  Zulia;  have  received 
more  or  less  attention,  its  mines,  for  one  reason  or 
another,  have  never  been  developed.  Yet  indications 
of  petroleum  or  asphalt  and  outcrops  of  coal  are 
to  be  met  with  all  round  the  lake.  The  salinas  near 
Maracaibo  are  not  mines  in  the  normal  sense  of  the 
word,  but  in  so  far  as  their  product  is  a  mineral, 
it  may  be  said  that  this  is  an  exception  to  the  rule, 
the  salt  of  Zulia  being  well  known  in  the  Andes 
and  Colombia. 

The  savannahs  which  here  and  there  break  the 
forest  on  both  sides  of  the  lake,  and  especially  on 
the  lower  slopes  of  the  Serrania  del  Empalado  to 
the  east,  provide  pasturage  for  many  head  of  cattle, 
and  in  the  north  goat -farming  is  extensively 
carried   on. 


ZULIA  151 

The  port  through  which  all  these  products  are,  or 
might  be,  transmitted  to  the  outside  world  was  first 
founded  by  Alfinger  in  1529,  but  the  original  town 
fell  into  decay,  and  the  present  city  dates  back 
to  1 571,  when  Don  Alonso  Pacheco  founded  it  as 
Nueva  Zamora  ;  as  usual,  the  Indian  name  soon 
ousted  the  Spanish  title.  To-day  it  is  the  second 
port  of  the  republic,  and  has  a  larger  export  trade 
than   La   Guaira. 

The  beautiful  bay,  with  its  wharves  and  smooth 
roadstead,  makes  a  splendid  harbour,  but  the  difficult 
navigation  of  the  mouth  of  the  lake  presents  a 
hindrance  ever  increasing  in  magnitude  with  the  silt- 
ing up  of  the  bar.  Schemes  have  been  advanced 
for  dredging  one  of  the  four  channels  and  so  pro- 
viding a  permanent  entrance  for  the  kind  of  steamer 
which  at  present  reaches  Maracaibo.  The  alternative 
idea  of  utilising  the  fine  natural  harbour  of  Cojoro 
on  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela  and  connecting  this  with 
the  capital  by  means  of  a  railway,  appears  much 
more  satisfactory,  since  in  this  way  the  increasing 
volume  of  exports  from  Zulia  and  the  Andes  could 
be  brought  to  a  port  capable  of  accommodating  the 
largest  of  ocean-going  steamers.  The  length  of  this 
line  would  be  some    100  miles. 

The  foreign  trade  of  Maracaibo  is  at  present 
carried  by  the  National  boat  Venezuela  or  by  the 
boats  of  the  American  Red  D  Line,  which  in  many 
cases  transfer  them  to  other  lines  in  Curasao  ;  the 
greater  part  of  the  exported  produce  is  carried  by 
sailing-boats.  The  wharves  and  warehouses  are 
under  public  control,  and  there  is  a  fixed  scale  of 
charges  from  65  centimos  per  100  kilos,  for  ex- 
ported goods  to  B12.0  for  imported  goods  destined 
for  merchants  in  Maracaibo  or  in  transit  to  Colombia. 
The  last-named  trade  is  very  considerable,  as  all 
the  foreign  goods  consumed  in  the  province  of 
Santander     enter    through    Maracaibo.       The    chief 


152  VENEZUELA 

exports  are  coffee,  cocoa,  quinine,  copaiba-balsam, 
dye-woods,  sugar,  and  hides. 

If  one  ignores  the  fact  that  the  great  majority 
of  the  streets  of  Maracaibo  are  as  Nature  made  them, 
it  is  possible  to  admire  the  extent  of  the  city  and 
flourishing  aspect  of  the  port,  but  on  a  hot  after- 
noon (and  this  is  worse  than  La  Guaira  for  heat) 
the  dusty  walk  or  drive  to  one's  hotel  does  not  add 
to  the  pleasure  of  the  first  experience  of  the  place. 
The  city  had  a  population  of  34,740  at  the  last 
census,  but  there  must  now  be  nearly  half  as  many 
again  living  in  the  capital. 

There  are  no  Anglo-Saxons  at  present  in  Mara- 
caibo, the  larger  business  houses  being  entirely 
managed,  though  not  always  owned,  by  Germans, 
from  all  of  whom,  including  the  British  Vice -Consul, 
Mr.  Schroder,  our  party  met  with  the  greatest  kind- 
ness. The  town  being  built  for  use  rather  than 
ornament,  there  are  no  public  buildings  of  particu- 
larly striking  appearance.  The  Legislative  and 
Municipal  Palaces  in  the  Plaza  Bolivar  and  the  spired 
church  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  are  among  the 
most  noticeable  buildings.  There  are  hospitals  and 
two  clubs,  and  the  Teatro  and  Plaza  Baralt,  with 
many  statues,  keep  in  memory  the  name  of  one  of 
Maracaibo's  most  famous  citizens,  who  wrote  the  first 
comprehensive  history  of  Venezuela. 

Factories  for  candles,  soap,  hats,  boots,  tanneries, 
and  saw-mills  are  among  the  more  prominent  indus- 
tries of  Maracaibo,  whose  products  command  a  sale 
in  Colombia  as  well  as  in  Venezuela. 

The  town  has  a  well-equipped  electric  light  plant, 
a  tramway  to  the  south  of  the  town,  which  is  shortly 
to  be  electrified,  another  out  to  the  Bella  Vista  suburb, 
worked  by  steam,  a  more  or  less  efficient  water 
supply,  and  restaurants,  shops,  and  other  means  of 
administration  to  the  public  comfort,  not  to  mention 
caches  equal  to  those  of  Caracas.     The  chief  needs 


ZULIA  153 

of  the  city  are  really  efficient  water  supply,  paving 
and  drainage  systems  ;  with  these  it  ought  to  be, 
though  hot,  one  of  the  healthiest  cities  of  the 
republic  ;     as   it   is,   the   death-rate   is   high. 

From  Maracaibo  steamers  and  sailing  craft  of  all 
kinds  travel  to  points  of  the  lake  shore,  and  in  some 
cases  far  up  the  larger  rivers  to  the  ports  of  the 
Andine  States  and  Colombia.  The  steamers  plying 
on  the  lake  include  some  venerable  hulks,  whose 
passage  through  the  water  is  accompanied  by  painful 
groans  and  sobs  from  the  ancient  engines  ;  one  of 
those  which  still  makes  the  trip  to  Encontrados,  on 
the  Catatumbo,  is  mentioned  by  Dr.  Sievers  as  work- 
ing when  he  visited  the  region  in  1884.  The  charges 
for  freight  and  passengers  are  in  inverse  proportion 
to  the  efficiency  of  the  boats. 

There  are  two  main  lines  of  steamers  from  the 
capital,  one  travelling  along  the  western  side  of  the 
lake  and  then  up  the  Catatumbo  to  Encontrados,  the 
port  of  Tachira  ;  the  other  crossing  diagonally  to 
La  Ceiba,  where  the  railway  from  Motatan  in  Trujillo 
reaches  the  shore.  A  smaller  boat  travels  round  the 
southern  end  of  the  lake,  connecting  the  mouth  of  the 
Catatumbo  and  La  Ceiba  with  Santa  Barbara  on 
the  Escalante,  where  a  railway  was  once  built  part  of 
the  way  to  Merida.  There  is  a  bar  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Catatumbo,  and  in  consequence  of  this  the 
smaller  steamer  is  always  there  awaiting  the  arrival 
of  the  large  boat  from  Maracaibo.  If  there  is  much 
cargo,  some  of  it  is  transhipped  outside  the  bar  and 
reloaded  when  the  lightened  vessel  has  successfully 
navigated  the  shallow  water.  Often  a  whole  day  is 
wasted  over  this  performance,  and  one  cannot  help 
thinking  that  if  the  dredging  of  a  channel  would  be 
more  expensive  it  would  at  least  be  less  ludicrous. 

Of  the  railways  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
lines  of  steamers,  that  from  La  Ceiba  is  wholly  in 
the  State  of  Trujillo,  but  the  others  traverse  a  con- 


154  VENEZUELA 

siderable  extent  of  the  forests  of  Zulia  before  enter- 
ing the  Andine  States.  The  metre-gauge  line  from 
Santa  Barbara  was  originally  intended  to  reach 
Merida  by  way  of  the  Chama  Valley,  but  it  only 
reached  El  Vigia,  on  that  river,  and  has  now  fallen 
into  disrepair.  The  Encontrados  line  or  Gran  Fer- 
rocarril  del  Tdchira,  also  a  Venezuelan  concern,  has 
a  i*o7-metre  track,  and  is  intended  ultimately  to 
reach  San  Cristobal  ;  passing  as  it  does  through 
great  stretches  of  virgin  forest  on  the  banks  of  the 
Zulia,  it  has  already  done  much  to  open  up  this 
country  to  cultivation,  and  ends  at  present  in  the 
coffee-bearing  foothills  of  the  Andes.  From  Encon-' 
trados  a  line  of  small  steamers  carries  merchandise 
on  up  the  Zulia  River  to  the  Colombian  port  of 
Villamizar. 

While  the  majority  of  settlements  round  the  lake 
consist  of  a  few  palm-leaf  huts,  or  houses  on  piles 
in  the  ancient  fashion  of  the  Indians,  there  are  several 
towns  of  more  or  less  importance.  Altagracia,  imme- 
diately opposite  Maracaibo  on  the  eastern  shore,  is 
the  largest  of  these,  and  has  a  considerable  import- 
ance on  account  of  the  agricultural  products  of  its 
surroundings,  with  a  fleet  of  fishing-boats,  whose 
catches  are  sold  in  the  town  and  thence  shipped  into 
the  interior.  Santa  Rita,  not  far  to  the  south,  is  in 
the  midst  of  a  fine  goat-farming  district,  and  the 
coco-palms  along  the  lake  shores  are  cultivated  with 
great  profit. 

At  the  extreme  south-east  corner  of  the  lake  there 
is  a  hamlet  which  bears  a  famous  name,  and  has  itself 
been  of  note  in  Venezuelan  history.  This  is  Gibraltar, 
founded  by  Gonzalo  Pina  Liduefia,  afterwards 
Governor  of  the  province,  in  1597.  It  is  said 
that  during  the  night  when  he  camped  at  this  spot 
there  was  a  total  eclipse  of  the  moon,  reminding 
him  of  a  bivouac  at  Gibraltar  in  Spain,  where  he 
had  last  seen  the  phenomenon  ;    as  a  result  he  named 


ZULIA  155 

the  new  settlement  after  the  famous  rock.  The  fertile 
lands  around  were  so  excellent  for  cacao  and  tobacco 
that  the  place  soon  became  important,  and  substantial 
buildings  were  erected  to  accommodate  the  increasing 
population.  Before  long  it  was  sacked  and  reduced 
to  ruins  by  the  Motilones  Indians,  but  in  1666  was 
again  so  flourishing  that  the  pirate  Henry  Morgan 
considered  it  worth  taking,  and  the  town,  which  had 
again  grown  up  in  1678,  was  sacked  a  third  time  by 
Gramont.  From  one  cause  and  another,  chiefly  the 
disturbances  during  the  revolution  against  Spain,  the 
place  became  deserted,  and  now  only  a  few  huts 
amid  the  ruins  of  the  old  stone  buildings  mark  the 
site  of  the  city,  while  the  cacao  and  tobacco  planta- 
tions have,  through  neglect,  lost  their  prestige  or 
been  swallowed  up  by  forest. 

San  Carlos  de  Zulia,  on  the  Escalantc,  is  im- 
portant by  virtue  of  the  through  traffic  from  the 
haciendas  in  the  interior  to  the  shores  of  the  lake, 
but  it  is  not  attractive,  being,  like  the  port  of  Encon- 
trados,  an  insanitary,  unhealthy,  riverside  village 
rather  than  a  town. 

North  of  the  cultivated  lands  on  the  west  shore 
near  Maracaibo,  opposite  the  entrance  of  the  lake, 
we  have  open,  dry  lands  where  the  salt-pans  are  to 
be  found,  and  on  a  lagoon  in  these  plains  stands 
Sinamaica,  interesting  for  the  Goajiro  population, 
who  preserve  their  primitive  customs  alongside  the 
civilisation  of  the  town. 

In  the  forests  south-west  of  the  capital  occurs  the 
peculiar  arbol  de  leche,  whose  sap  can  be  used  in 
every  way  like  cow's  milk,  though  it  is  slightly 
thicker.  Here  and  elsewhere  the  woods  are  full  of 
valuable  timber  (mahogany,  ebony,  lignum-vitas)  and 
of  useful  creepers  and  trees  like  that  which  furnishes 
the  copaiba-balsam.  These  represent  to  a  great 
extent  the  undeveloped  resources  of  the  State,  and 
side  by  side  with  them  must  be  considered  the  many 


156  VENEZUELA 

varieties  of  fishes  inhabiting  the  waters  of  the  gulf 
and  lake,  only  a  few  of  which  are  caught  at  the 
present  time. 

No  account  of  the  Zulian  region  could  omit  a  refer- 
ence to  the  famous  "  Maracaibo  lights,"  or  farol  de 
Maracaibo,  the  flash  of  which  can  be  seen  far  out 
at  sea  and  is  used  by  mariners  out  of  range  of  any 
of  the  lighthouses.  This  vivid  and  continuous 
lightning  is  to  be  seen  nightly  over  the  south  end 
of  the  lake,  and  is  generally  described  as  visible 
over  the  mouth  of  the  Catatumbo.  The  flashes  seem, 
however,  rather  to  extend  all  along  the  line  of  the 
mountains,  which  rise  a  few  miles  from  the  lake  to 
a  height  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  thousand  feet.  A 
possible  explanation  seems  to  be  the  following  :  As 
the  atmosphere  over  the  bare  mountains  cools  rapidly 
at  sunset  the  heavily-charged  hot  air  of  the  basin- 
like depression  of  Maracaibo  rises,  so  that  masses  of 
air  at  different  potentials  meet  at  a  great  height  and 
emit  huge  sparks  visible  for  hundreds  of  miles. 
Whether  this  be  so  or  not,  it  is  a  fact  that  the  flashes 
are  visible  nightly  from  sunset  until  sunrise,  with 
little    variation    in   brilliance. 


CHAPTER    X 

THE   ANDINE   STATES 

Tachira,  Merida,  and  Trujillo 

Access  —  Roads  versus  railways  —  Mineral  wealth  —  Maracaibo 
coffee — Forests — San  Cristobal — Water  supply — Industries — 
Roads — Rubio — Tachira  Petroleum  Company — San  Antonio — 
Lobatera — Colon — Interrupted  communications — Pregonero — 
El  Cobre — Old  mines — La  Grita — Seboruco  copper — Merida — 
The  Bishop  and  the  Bible — Eternal  snows — Earthquakes — 
Electric  light — Road  schemes — Gold  and  silver — Lagunillas 
— Urao — Wayside  hospitality — Puente  Real — Primitive  modes 
of  transport — Las  Laderas — The  Mucuties  Valley — Tovar — 
Mucuchies — The  highest  town  in  Venezuela — The  paramos — 
Timotes — Trujillo — Valcra — Water  supply — La  Ceiba  Railway 
— Bctijoque  and  Escuque — Bocono — Santa  Ana — Carache — 
Unknown  regions — Possibilities  of  the  Andes. 

Were  I  asked  which  of  all  the  regions  of  Venezuela 
I  thought  the  most  attractive  and  interesting  to  the 
general  traveller,  I  should  have  little  hesitation  in 
replying,  "  The  Andes."  The  three  mountain  States 
constitute  a  territory  where,  along  with  an  appre- 
ciable extent  of  development,  there  is  a  complete 
absence  of  the  commonplace  both  in  the  country  and 
its  people.  The  deep  valleys  and  gorges  and  snow- 
clad  peaks,  with  towns  and  cities  perched  on 
mountain -sides  and  gravel  plateaux,  might  be 
paralleled  elsewhere  in  South  America  but  not  in 
this  republic,  and  though  the  inhabitants  of  the 
towns  have  often  travelled  in  America  and  Europe  on 
modern  steamers  and  trains,  to  reach  their  homes  they 


158  VENEZUELA 

have,  like  their  less  aspiring  countrymen,  to  jog  on 
muleback  for  many  leagues  over  rough  mountain 
paths  which  lead  them  frequently  along  precipices  and 
through  all  but  unfordable  rivers,  and  are  marked  by 
crosses  commemorating  the  violent  deaths  of  previous 
travellers.  It  is  a  region  where,  a  few  miles  from 
the  towns,  are  great  stretches  of  unknown  uplands 
and  forest-clad  slopes,  unexplored  territory  side  by 
side  with  the  habitation  of  some  of  the  most 
industrious   communities   of  the  republic. 

The  Andes  may  be  reached  from  the  north  via 
the  BoHvar  Railway  and  from  Maracaibo  either  by 
way  of  La  Ceiba,  whence  the  railway  brings  the 
traveller  into  the  foothills  of  Trujillo  at  the  north 
end,  or  by  Encontrados,  when  he  enters  Tachira,  the 
most  southerly  of  the  trio  of  States.  There  is  a  fourth 
route  along  the  disused  railway  from  Santa  Barbara, 
on  the  Escalante,  up  the  valley  of  the  Chama  and 
so  into  Merida,  but  this  is  best  avoided  by  those  who 
do  not  hanker  after  unnecessary  discomforts  and  the 
less  pleasant  type  of  adventure.  Within  the  Andes 
proper  everything  is  carried  on  mules,  and  on  the 
narrow  paths  one  has  continually  to  pass  or  be 
passed  by  trains  of  laden  beasts,  bearing  the  produce 
of  the  hills  and  valleys  or  the  imported  wares  of 
Europe  and  America. 

Over  the  swiftest  and  deepest  rivers  there  are 
generally  bridges,  but  a  stream  flooded  by  heavy 
rain  may  hold  one  up  for  a  week  or  more,  and  where 
the  track  is  along  the  sides  of  precipitous  ravines 
wash-outs  and  landslides  are  often  serious  obstacles. 
Despite  the  industry  of  the  inhabitants,  the  primi- 
tive character  of  the  roads  in  the  Andes  is  a  great 
hindrance  to  adequate  development  of  the  country, 
and  when  one  hears  of  machinery  for  use  in  Merida 
taking  a  year  to  get  there  from  the  terminus  of  the 
La  Ceiba  Railway  one  wonders  that  the  prominence  of 
the    Andinos    in    politics    has    not    secured    for   their 


A   STREET    IN    LA   GRITA. 


PUENTE    REAI    :     (vjlO.L    L'i     iilL 


To  face  page  15S. 


THE    ANDINE    STATES  159 

States  some  beginning  of  a  system  of  adequate  roads 
suitable  for  wheel  traffic.  Railways  have  been  pro- 
jected, but  the  cost  of  building  these  in  virgin  country 
generally  renders  the  freights  so  high  that  they  do 
little  or  nothing  for  development.  Roads  may  appeal 
less  to  the  imagination  than  the  more  modern  means 
of  communication,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  often  despised  road  in  a  country  like  Venezuela 
would  for  a  time  be  a  better  investment  for  public, 
if  not  for  private,  capital. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  Andes  is  as  yet  prac- 
tically untouched,  yet  copper  and  silver  are  known 
to  occur  in  Tachira  and  Merida  ;  gold  is  said  to  have 
been  found  in  the  latter,  and  coal  and  petroleum 
occur  in  all  three  States. 

The  Andine  States  include  some  of  the  best  coiffee- 
lands  in  the  republic,  and  Maracaibo  coflfee,  as  it  is 
called,  enjoys  great  favour  in  the  United  States.  In 
the  warmer  regions  good  cocoa  can  be  grown,  while 
wheat  is  common  in  the  upper  temperate  zones. 
Tobacco  also  flourishes  in  Merida  and  Trujillo. 

The  forests  of  the  mountain-flanks  add  to  the 
botanic  wealth  of  the  region  mahogany,  ebony, 
lignum-vitse,  quinine,  dividive,  and  many  other 
valuable   products    hardly   exploited   as    yet. 

For  population  and  revenue  Trujillo  stands  first  of 
the  Andine  States,  Tachira  second,  and  Merida, 
though  the  largest  in  area,  third.  For  convenience 
of  description  we  will  consider  them  in  geographical 
order,   beginning  from  the   south. 

The  capital  of  Tachira  is  San  Cristobal,  foimded 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  River  Torbes  by  Juan  Mal- 
donado  in  i  5  6 1 .  Although,  in  approaching  the  town, 
the  traveller  who  does  not  trace  his  route  on  a  map 
would  consider  himself  still  on  the  Maracaibo  side 
of  the  watershed,  the  waters  of  the  Torbes  flow  round 
the  mountains  behind  the  town  to  join  the  Uribante, 
a   sub -tributary  of  the   Orinoco.      The   main   water- 


160  VENEZUELA 

shed  of  the  Venezuelan  Andes  ^t  this  point  is  probably 
less  than  4,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  San  Cristobal 
is  well  situated  in  respect  of  through  traffic  from  the 
western  Llanos  to  Zulia  or  Colombia.  Despite  its 
political  importance,  therefore,  its  aspect  is  in  the 
main  that  of  a  busy  commercial  town  situated  in  a 
fruitful  valley. 

As  in  all  the  Andine  towns,  the  question  of  water 
supply  is  settled  with  comparative  ease  by  leading 
water  down  from  a  spring  or  stream  above  and  allow- 
ing this  to  follow  stone  channels  in  the  centre  of  the 
cobbled  streets,  while  side  channels  behind  and  under 
the  houses  provide  continuously  flushed  drains  empty- 
ing into  the  river.  The  system  is  not  always  as  well 
or  elaborately  worked  as  in  San  Cristobal,  but  in 
essentials  it  is  the  same  throughout  the  region.  In 
addition  to  its  through  trade  the  town  has  several 
flourishing  industries,  not  least  of  which  is  the  manu- 
facture of  vermicelli,  or  fideos,  used  extensively,  if 
not  perpetually,  in  the  soups  of  this  part  of  the 
country  ;  the  beasts  and  stock  products  from  the 
Llanos  provide  in  addition  raw  materials  for  making 
candle  ;  and  soap,  as  well  as  for  the  tanneries  in  the 
neighbourhood. 

From  San  Cristobal  roads  lead  to  San  Antonio  on 
the  Colombian  frontier  ;  to  the  Llanos  down  the 
Torbes  and  Quinimari  valleys  ;  to  Uraca,  the  ter- 
minus of  the  Tachira  Railway  ;    and  to  Merida. 

San  Cristobal  being  built  on  the  slope  of  a  steep 
range  of  hills,  with  a  river  flowing  in  a  semicircle 
in  front,  it  is  impossible  to  leave  the  town  on  any 
of  the  main  routes  without  crossing  water,  somewhat 
of  a  difficulty  when  unbridged  streams  are  flooded. 
On  the  road  which  leads  to  Colombia,  however,  there 
is  a  bridge  over  the  Torbes,  which  enables  com- 
munications to  be  maintained  at  all  seasons. 

Fifteen  miles  down  the  valley  to  the  south  is  the 
flourishing  little  town  of  Rubio,  surrounded  by  some 


THE    ANDINE    STATES  161 

of  the  biggest  and  best  coffee  estates  in  the  country, 
fitted  with  modern  plant  for  handling  the  beans. 
Coal  and,  it  is  said,  silver  are  to  be  found  near  by, 
and  the  Tdchira  Petroleum  Company,  a  local  affair, 
has  produced  and  sold  small  quantities  of  illuminating 
oil  in  the  neighbourhood  for  many  years. 

A  good  deal  of  the  produce  of  these  parts  is 
shipped  through  Colombia  in  bond  to  avoid  the 
additional,  and  often  difficult,  length  of  road  to  Uraca. 
San  Antonio  is  the  frontier  town  on  the  River 
Tdchira,  both  river  and  State  taking  their  name  from 
a  frontier  Indian  tribe  ;  here  is  the  terminus  of  the 
English  railway  which  runs  through  Cucuta  to  Puerto 
Villamizar.  Once  cocoa,  coffee,  and  indigo  were 
the  chief  products  of  the  neighbourhood,  but  now, 
with  the  growth  of  Cucuta  and  San  Cristobal,  it 
has  been  found  more  profitable  to  use  the  lands  for 
grazing   or   for   sugar. 

The  other  main  export  route  from  the  capital  of 
Tachira  passes  through  the  small  towns  of  Lobatera 
and  Colon  to  Uraca,  the  terminus  of  the  Tachira 
Railway  leading  to  Encontrados  in  Zulia.  Lobatera 
itself  is  something  over  3,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
on  the  Maracaibo  side  of  the  watershed,  up  to  which 
the  white  road  zigzags  behind  the  town.  Its  pro- 
ductions are  said  to  have  decreased  of  late  years, 
but  I  have  pleasant  recollections  of  the  agreeable 
impression  produced  by  these  clean  and  apparently 
prosperous  towns  of  Tdchira,  on  first  arriving  there 
from  the  lowlands  of  Zulia,  with  their  miserable  huts 
and  muddy,  insanitary  villages.  People,  housing,  and 
food  alike  seemed  vastly  improved.  Colon  is  the 
half-way  house  for  arrivals  from  Uracd,  and  as  a 
result  has  several  hoteles.  It  is  a  neat,  well- 
built  little  town,  the  surrounding  hills  and  plateaux 
being  chiefly  devoted  to  stock-farming.  Some  ten 
miles  to  the  north  is  the  railway  terminus  in  the 
small  town  of  Uracd,  on  the  edge  of  the  hot  lands 
11 


162  VENEZUELA 

and  very  damp  in  consequence,  the  mists  banking 
up  in  the  narrow  valley  nightly  ;  coffee  and  cocoa 
seem  to  be  the  chief  products  of  the  neighbourhood. 

Both  the  Encontrados  road  and  that  to  Merida 
pass  through  the  little  town  of  Tariba,  about  three 
miles  east  of  San  Cristobal,  on  the  north  bank  of 
the  Torbes.  There  are  no  bridges  here  over  the 
stream,  and  as  a  result  in  time  of  floods  would-be 
travellers  are  penned  up  in  San  Cristobal,  for  on 
both  roads  one  must  ford  the  stream  below  the  town, 
and  on  the  way  to  Merida,  a  second  ford  is  necessary 
immediately  above  ;  at  the  latter  there  is  a  foot 
bridge,  and  when  the  Torbes  is  in  flood  the  mules 
are  fairly  hauled  across  the  stream  on  a  rope  ;  the 
strong  currents  would  otherwise  carry  them  down 
over  the  rocks.  It  is  interesting  to  watch  and  follow 
a  man  who  knows  these  fords  as  he  pricks  his  way 
along  through  the  shallows,  but  they  are  a  great 
hindrance   to   traffic. 

Up  the  Torbes  Valley  and  across  the  paramo  of  El 
Zumbador  (8,000  feet),  a  day's  ride  brings  one  to 
La  Grita  (I  shall  have  to  refer  to  paramos  again 
later  on).  Near  the  watershed  a  road  branches 
off  to  the  east  to  Pregonero,  capital  of  the  Uribante 
district,  in  a  valley  whose  products  range  from  pota- 
toes and  wheat  at  the  top  to  coffee  and  sugar  at 
the  bottom  ;  out  on  the  plains,  too,  there  are  big 
cattle-ranches  whence  comes  much  of  the  meat  con- 
sumed in  the  Andine  towns.  The  district  needs  roads 
for  its  development,  and  at  present  is  rather  an  iso- 
lated, unvisited   region. 

Vargas  or  El  Cobre  is  a  pleasant  little  village 
on  the  northern  or  western  side  of  the  pass,  and  its 
alternative  name  is  said  to  refer  to  mines  of  copper 
in  the  hills  near  by  worked  by  the  Spaniards,  who 
made  the  bells  of  the  little  church  from  the  metal. 

Forty  miles  is  the  estimated  distance  from  Tariba 
to   La   Grita,    but    the    road    is    sufficiently   good   to 


THE    ANDINE    STATES  163 

make  it  seem  shorter,  and  the  view  up  the  valley, 
with  mountains  rising  tier  upon  tier  into  the  clouds, 
is  superb.  The  town  was  founded  in  1576,  on  a 
gravel  mesa  or  table-land,  necessitated  a  steep  climb 
before  actually  entering  the  town.  Its  position  makes 
it  peculiarly  subject  to  earthquake  shocks,  but  in 
spite  of  this  the  old  churches  and  Government  build- 
ings are  still  standing.  The  many  stores  are  an 
indication  of  the  importance  of  La  Grita  as  a  market 
town,  and  on  Sunday  one  finds  the  streets  full  of 
countrymen  in  charge  of  mules  laden  with  the  wheat, 
wool,  tobacco,  and  cotton  of  the  surrounding  country. 
At  6,000  feet  above  the  sea,  the  town  has  the  repu- 
tation of  being  one  of  the  healthiest  in  Venezuela, 
and  certainly  the  apples,  apricots,  and  peaches  in 
the  patios,  with  roses  and  violets  beneath  them,  are 
a  pleasant  sight  to  the  man  from  the  north,  who  has 
found  the  "  luscious  fruits  "  and  gorgeous  flowers 
of  the  tropics  a  snare  and  delusion.  A  few  miles 
down  the  river  towards  Uraca  is  Seboruco,  with  its 
copper-mines,  soon,  it  is  said,  to  be  worked  again. 
Not  far  above  the  town  is  the  Pass  of  Portachuelo, 
which  marks  the  boundary  with  Merida,  the  central 
of  the  three  Andine  States. 

Merida  is  the  mountain  State  par  excellence  of 
Venezuela,  including  within  its  boundaries  the  highest 
peaks  and  some  of  the  hottest  valleys  in  the  country. 
With  this  variety  of  climate  it  is  natural  that  the 
range  of  products  should  be  wide,  but  bad  roads 
and  resulting  high  cost  of  transport  have  kept  the 
country   largely   undeveloped. 

The  capital  was  founded  in  i  542  under  the  lengthy 
appellation  of  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros  de  Merida, 
and  it  has  long  been  the  seat  of  the  Bishop  of  the 
Andes.  A  colporteur  having  recently  been  found  in 
the  diocese  selling  Bibles,  the  energetic  occupant  of 
the  see  promptly  excommunicated  him  and  all  who 
had  purchased  the  forbidden  books  ;    his  zeal,  how- 


164  VENEZUELA 

ever,  seems  merely  to  have  rendered  more  marked 
the  indifference  of  the  male  portion  of  the  population 
to  public  religion  of  any  kind. 

The  city  is  built  on  a  high  plateau  like  that  of 
La  Grita  between  the  Rivers  Mucujun  and  Chama, 
and  towering  above  it  to  the  east  is  the  white-topped 
Sierra  Nevada,  while  a  lower  but  equally  steep  range 
bounds  the  valley  to  the  west.  The  snow  on  the 
Sierras  is  said  to  have  been  retreating  of  recent 
years,  but  there  are  still  perpetual  snow-fields  and 
glaciers  round  the  summits,  the  permanent  line  being 
now  at  about  15,000  feet.  The  city  has  often 
suffered  severe  damage  from  earthquakes,  but  new 
buildings  have  always  quickly  taken  the  place  of 
those  destroyed.  Partly,  probably,  on  account  of 
the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  valley,  Merida 
has  a  somewhat  deserted  look  with  its  grass -grown 
streets,  yet  there  are  looms  turning  out  cotton  and 
woollen  cloth,  and  it  is  an  important  market  centre 
for  the  coffee,  wheat,  and  sugar  from  the  various 
zones   in  its  neighbourhood. 

The  torrent  of  the  Chama  immediately  above 
Merida  has  been  requisitioned  to  supply  power  for 
an  electric  lighting  system  in  the  city.  The  turbines 
were  brought  at  great  trouble  and  expense  over  the 
mountain  track  from  La  Ceiba,  the  journey  occupying 
about  a  year,  but  in  view  of  the  determination  which 
carried  through  such  an  enterprise,  it  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  the  results  are  not  more  impressive. 
Strings  of  three  or  four  bulbs  each  across  the  street 
at  regular  intervals  might  provide  an  efficient  light, 
but  as  a  matter  of  fact  they  do  not,  the  total  number 
of  lamps  being  far  in  excess  of  the  capabilities  of 
the  present  turbine  installation,  though  much  below 
the  available  water-power.  As  a  result,  while  one 
may  have  the  electric  light  in  the  house,  it  is  better 
to  resort  to  the  homely  candle  for  reading  or  writing 
after  sunset.  v 


THE    ANDINE    STATES  165 

What  is  chiefly  needed  for  Merida  to-day  is  a 
good  road  to  connect  it  with  the  lake,  across  which 
all  the  produce  of  the  region  has  to  travel  to  the 
sea.  Long  ago  the  project  was  formed  of  building 
a  railway  along  the  Chama  Valley  to  connect  with 
Santa  Barbara  on  the  Escalante,  but  the  engineering 
difficulties  in  the  gorges  would  probably  prevent  the 
carrying  out  of  any  such  scheme  just  yet  ;  a  second 
idea,  which  has  never  received  much  attention,  was  to 
carry  a  line  up  the  Mucujun,  and  so  over  the  pass  of 
the  outer  range  of  the  Cordillera  to  Bobures,  on  the 
lake,  a  feasible  scheme  enough,  though  at  the  present 
stage  a  road  would  better  supply  the  need  of  the 
place. 

There  have,  from  time  to  time,  been  reports  of 
mines  in  the  Sierra,  but  the  best  authenticated  occur- 
rence is  that  of  gold  and  silver,  near  Estanques,  on 
the  main  road  to  the  lowlands  ;  these  deposits  have 
never  been  worked,  as  far  as  I  could  ascertain.  The 
chief  assets  of  the  district  are  at  present  the  fertile 
lands  of  the  Chama  and  tributary  valleys,  DoAvn 
the  former,  on  the  way  to  Ejido,  about  seven  miles 
from  the  capital,  the  road  passes  all  the  way  through 
coffee  and  cacao  plantations,  with  some  open  pasture- 
lands  ;  beyond  Ejido  the  valley  becomes  more  and 
more  barren  towards  Lagunillas,  famed  for  its 
mineral  lake,  containing  large  quantities  of  urao  or 
trona.  The  view  over  this  little  town  to  the  snow- 
clad  peaks  above  Merida  is  very  fine  in  the  early 
morning,  but  the  place  seems  to  have  little  com- 
merce. I  must  not  omit  mention  of  a  pleasant  inci- 
dent which  occurred  near  Lagunillas,  showing  the 
hospitable  temper  of  the  Andinos.  We  asked  at  a 
wayside  store  (empty  of  goods)  if  we  might  buy  some 
of  the  oranges  growing  profusely  in  their  garden. 
"  With  great  pleasure,"  said  the  proprietor,  and 
brought  us  chairs  that  we  might  dismount  and  rest. 
Presently  came  plates  of  oranges  cut  up  into  a  salad, 


166  VENEZUELA 

a  very  welcome  dish  in  these  hot  valleys.  "  And  the 
charge?  "  v/e  asked.  "  Nada,  sefiores."  Nor  would 
our  kind  hosts  accept  a  centimo.  We  knew  they, 
would  not  have  eaten  the  fruit  themselves,  but  the 
spirit  of  hospitality  was  the  same. 

Two  or  three  miles  below  Lagunillas  is  one  of  the 
worst  bits  of  road  in  the  Andes,  and  yet  it  is  on 
the  main  route  to  the  south.  First,  a  descent  down 
a  steep  zigzag  brings  one  to  a  picturesque  wooden 
bridge  over  the  torrent  of  the  Chama,  giving  the 
name  to  the  group  of  houses  near  by  of  Puente  Real. 
Not  many  years  ago  travellers  and  their  baggage 
were  taken  over  the  stream  in  a  sort  of  breeches- 
buoy,  while  their  mules  were  dragged  through  the 
swift  current  below,  and  often  only  landed  with  difh- 
culty  far  down  on  the  opposite  bank  ;  the  bridge  is 
at  least  an  advance  on  this  primitive  mode  of  transit. 

The  bottom  of  the  bare  steep-sided  ravine  is  hot 
and  dusty,  and  on  the  far  side,  after  a  mile  or  two, 
the  road  begins  to  follow  the  nearly  vertical  side, 
finally  narrowing  down  to  a  mere  path,  with  a  preci- 
pice into  the  torrent  below.  This  lasts  for  some  four 
or  five  miles,  and  the  whole  stretch  takes  its  name 
from  the  most  unpleasant  part  of  all.  Las  Laderas, 
or  "  the  steeps,"  just  before  the  San  Pablo  tribu- 
tary enters  from  the  south.  Here  the  height  of  the 
road  above  the  stream  gradually  increases,  until  at 
length  the  descent  to  the  side  valley  is  accomplished 
in  a  short  distance  by  what  is  practically  a  staircase 
of  loose  rock,  buttressed  with  logs,  while  there  is 
a  sheer  drop  on  the  ofifside  into  the  foaming  torrent 
beneath  ;  not  a  pleasant  place  on  a  dry  day,  and 
almost  impassable  on  a  wet  one.  Once  at  the  bottom, 
the  rest  of  the  way,  until  more  open  valleys  are 
reached,  is  a  precipice  road,  generally,  but  not 
always,   wide   enough   for   two   mules   to   pass. 

Beyond  Estanques  the  main  valley  narrows  down 
to  a  gorge,  but  the  road  climbs  over  the  hills  to  the 
side,  and  at  length  descends  past  a  tile  and  brick 


THE    ANDINE    STATES  167 

making  yard  to  the  hot  valley  of  the  Mucuties  with 
its  cacao  plantations.  A  picturesque  bridge  across 
the  river  leads  to  the  parting  of  the  roads,  one  going 
up  the  Mucuties  to  Tovar,  the  other  down  the  Chama 
Valley  to  El  Vigia,  and  so  to  the  Zulia  plains. 

Tovar  forms  a  local  market-centre  for  the  produce 
of  the  cocoa  and  coffee  plantations  of  the  valley, 
but  beyond  it  Bailadores  marks  the  downward  limit 
of  the  wheatfields  which  make  the  top  of  the 
Mucuties  ravine  almost  like  a  European  landscape 
in  time  of  harvest. 

Northward  of  Merida,  the  Chama  Valley  has  some 
coffee  plantations,  but  the  road  soon  leaves  these, 
and  at  Mucuchies,  the  highest  town  in  Venezuela 
(10,000  feet),  we  are  in  the  region  of  pasture-land 
and  potatoes,  even  wheat  being  absent  in  these  high 
altitudes.  There  are  a  few  scattered  houses  above 
Mucuchies,  one  of  which  is  a  small  inn  known  as  Los 
Apartaderos,  the  best  stopping-place  to  ensure  a  calm 
crossing  of  the  pass  next  day,  the  winds  rising  nor- 
mally towards  midday. 

These  high  exposed  passes  are  known  in  Vene- 
zuela as  paramos,  a  word  as  to  whose  precise 
meaning  some  doubt  appears  to  exist,  though 
Humboldt's  definition  as  "  all  passes  above  1,800 — 
2,200  Toises  above  the  sea,  where  inclement  rough 
weather  prevails,"  seems  to  cover  the  present  use  of 
the  word.  The  paramo  of  Mucuchies  or  Timotes 
over  which  passes  the  main  road  between  Merida 
and  Trujillo  is  the  highest  in  the  Venezuelan  Andes, 
the  big  wooden  cross  at  the  summit  being  about 
14,500  feet  above  the  sea.  In  the  rainy  season, 
owing  to  the  dense  mass  of  clouds  on  the  pass,  it 
is  often  deep  in  snow,  and  woe  betide  the  unlucky 
traveller  whose  mule  becomes  paramada  then  ! 
The  verb  derived  from  the  generic  name  of  these 
high  passes  is  often  applied  jokingly  to  an  individual 
who  has  merely  got  wet  through  and  is  cold  and 
uncomfortable. 


168  VENEZUELA 

At  Timotes,  the  first  town  on  the  north  side  of 
the  pass,  the  tropical  plants  begin  again  to  make 
their  appearance,  but  the  valley  is  chiefly  occupied 
by  grazing  land,  as  far,  at  least,  as  the  boundary  of 
Trujillo. 

The  most  northerly  State  of  the  trio  is  far  more 
temperate  in  its  general  aspect  than  Merida,  though 
in  Trujillo  also  there  are  pdramos  as  well  as  tropical 
lowlands.  The  chief  products  are  coffee  and  sugar, 
and  while  Merida  has  its  metallic  ores,  the  most 
notable   minerals   here   are    coal   and   petroleum. 

The  capital  dates  back  to  1556,  and  has  been  the 
scene  of  many  notable  events  in  the  history  of 
Venezuela,  while  its  commercial  prosperity  ,tempted 
Gramont  to  march  from  La  Ceiba  and  sack  the  town 
in  1678.  It  stands  in  a  valley  alone,  surrounded  by 
cofTee  plantations  and  canefields,  which  provide  the 
principal  articles  of  commerce  in  its  markets.  As 
is  the  case  with  San  Cristobal,  a  ford  on  the  main 
road  to  its  port  makes  communications  uncertain, 
although  there  is  a  second  but  difificult  track  over 
the  hills  which  can  be  used  in  emergencies  ;  either 
route  means  about  twenty-five  miles  to  Motatan  and 
the  same  distance  on  a  branch  road  to  Valera,  an 
important  town  on  the  road  to  Merida. 

Although  Trujillo  is  the  capital  of  the  State  and 
Motatan  the  present  terminus  of  the  La  Ceiba  Rail- 
way, it  is  in  Valera  that  most  of  the  important  com- 
merce of  the  State  is  carried  on,  a  fact  due,  on  the 
one  hand,  to  the  more  advantageous  position  of  the 
town  in  regard  to  the  fertile  valley  of  the  foot- 
hills, on  the  other,  to  its  age  in  comparison  ,with 
Motatan,  regarded  as  only  the  temporary  terminus. 
Sugar  and  coffee  estates,  bearing  evidence  of 
prosperity  in  their  appearance,  occupy  the  valley 
in  which  the  town  of  Valera  lies,  and  the  produce 
of  these,  as  well  as  that  from  the  regions  around, 
passes  through  the  hands  of  the  merchants  of  the 
place  on  its  way  to  Maracaibo.     There  are  some  hot 


THE    ANDINE    STATES  169 

springs  near  by,  but  so  far  Valera  has  acquired  no 
fame  as  a  health  resort.  There  is  a  good  water 
supply  from  mountain  streams  far  up  the  valley, 
brought  to  the  town  through  cisterns  and  mains, 
arranged  by  its  energetic  citizen  Sefior  Antonio 
Braschi,  who,  like  many  of  the  prospering  merchants 
and  professional  men  of  Trujillo,  Zulia,  and  Merida, 
claims  Italy  as  his  mother  country. 

The  La  Ceiba  Railway  was  built  with  the  aid  of 
Venezuelan  capital,  and  is  controlled  by  a  local  board 
of  directors,  though  the  actual  construction  of  the 
line  was  carried  out  by  French  engineers.  It  is 
proposed  to  replace  the  wooden  bridges  by  those 
of  iron  and  to  effect  other  improvements  in  the 
permanent  way  which  will  tend  to  avoid  the  occasional 
stoppages  of  the  past. 

Not  far  to  the  west  of  Valera  are  the  towns  of 
Betijoque  and  Escuque,  both  of  considerable  antiquity, 
situated  in  richly  fertile  valleys  ;  near  the  former 
there  are  well-known  oil-springs,  so  far  not  ex- 
ploited, while  the  coffee  of  Escuque  is  of  specially 
fine  quality. 

From  the  streets  of  Trujillo  the  hills  can  be 
followed  with  the  eye  to  a  pass,  of  threatening 
appearance  when  covered  with  heavy  clouds,  far  to 
the  south-east  the  Paramo  de  la  Cristalina.  Over 
this  lies  the  way  to  Bocono,  one  of  the  most  pictur- 
esquely situated  towns  in  Venezuela  in  its  fertile 
valley,  which  produces  at  different  altitudes  sugar, 
coffee,  and  wheat. 

Following  the  road  northward  from  Trujillo,  down 
the  valley  and  then  up  the  cuestas  (sharply  zigzag 
roads  up  steep  ascents),  we  come  to  Santa  Ana,  or 
Santana,  a  place  famous  in  the  history  of  the  revolu- 
tion as  the  meeting-place  of  Bolivar  and  Morillo  after 
the  declaration  of  the  armistice.  A  column  outside 
the  town  commemorates  the  event.  It  has  little 
attraction  to-day,  save  as  a  half-way  house  to 
Carache,  being  a  small  village  situated  on  a  cold 
and  misty  limestone  ridge  between  two  deep  valleys. 


r 


170  VENEZUELA 

Carache,  beyond  it,  is  near  the  north-east  boundary 
of  the  State,  and  near  also  to  the  northern  end  of  the 
Andine  region  proper.  The  dry  valley  in  which  the 
well-built  little  town  stands  seems  fit  to  support  only 
goats,  a  few  cattle,  and  some  cotton,  but  the  hills 
and  valleys  round  grow  wheat,  sugar,  and  coffee, 
giving   business   to   more   than   one   merchant   in   the 

.  town.  From  the  bare  hills  behind  the  town  a  glimpse 
may   often    be    obtained    through   the    clouds    of   the 

,Xake  of  Maracaibo  far  below  the  west,  while  over 
the  clouds  to  the  south  are  the  peaks  of  the  Cordil- 
lera, a  splendid  prospect  on  a  suitable  day. 

North-west  of  Carache  is  an  almost  unexplored 
area,  extending  down  the  flanks  of  the  Sierra  del 
Empalado  to  the  lake  shore,  one  day,  perhaps,  to 
be  visited  and  developed,  but  as  yet  hardly  known 
save  to  those  who  cut  dividive  in  the  forests. 

There  must  be  great  possibilities  for  such  a  region 
as  that  of  the  Andes,  where  much  territory  remains 
unexplored,  while  it  includes,  as  it  were,  all  the 
climates  of  the  globe.  Many  plants  have  already 
been  acclimatised,  and  of  those  whose  cultivation  is 
already  carried  on  on  a  larger  scale  much  more  might 
be  made  ;  the  coffee  and  cocoa  of  the  moister  tropical 
valleys,  the  wheat  of  the  open  higher  zones,  the 
possible  cotton  of  the  Chama,  Carache,  and  other 
valleys  are  among  their  number.  The  possible 
culture  of  fruits  of  all  kinds  for  which  a  demand 
might  be  expected  in  Venezuela  generally  as  the 
country  develops,  and  the  less  permanent  resources 
of  mines  and  forests,  make  an  increasing  prosperity 
for  the  Andine  States  almost  assured,  but  adequate 
and  permanent  means  of  transport  are  required  before 
they  can  be  developed  to  their  full  extent.  The 
long  mule-trains  on  the  mountain  roads  are  pictur- 
esque, but  roads  fit  for  wheel  traffic  would  leave 
these  where  desirable  and  yet  provide  the  means  of 
quicker  and  cheaper  transit  for  the  produce  of  the 
fertile  valleys  of  the  Cordillera. 


CHAPTER    XI 

LARA,   YARACUY,   AND   FALCCJN 

The  original  Venezuela— Ancient  cities — Communications — Bar- 
quisinieto — Fortified  stores— Productions — The  Bolivar  Railway 
— Duaca — Aroa  copper-mines — A  precarious  house-site — In  the 
mine— Bats  and  cockroaches — "  El  Purgatorio  " — Blue  and  green 
stalactites— San  Felipe — The  Yaracuy  Valley — Nirgua— Yarita- 
gua — Tocuyo — The  "coach"  to  Barquisimeto — Quibor — Minas 
— Carora — An  ill-advised  scheme — Siquisique — Steamboats  on 
the  Tocuyo — San  Luis — Coro — The  first  cathedral  of  South 
America — Goat-farms — Fibre — La  Vela — Capatarida  tobacco — 
Curasao — A  fragment  of  Holland — A  mixed  language— Trade — 
Sanitation — The  islands. 

The  three  States  whose  boundaries  include  to-day 
the  Segovia  Highlands  and  the  Coro  Lowlands  repre- 
sent the  greater  part  of  the  original  province  of 
Venezuela,  as  known  to  the  Welser  Governors.  The 
region  is  for  the  most  part  high,  with  no  exceptional 
peaks,  and  therefore  may  be  considered  as  an  elevated 
plateau,  separated  from  the  sea  by  a  belt  of  plains. 
In  Yaracuy  there  are  fertile  valleys,  as  well  as  in 
the  northern  part  of  Lara  and  the  south  of  Falcon  ; 
in  Lara,  too,  round  Carora,  we  have  llanos  for  cattle - 
grazing,  and  Barquisimeto  receives  much  wheat  from 
the  surrounding  country.  The  Coro  plains  are  mostly 
dry  and  barren,  covered  with  cactus,  which  nourishes 
thousands  of  goats. 

The  towns  and  cities  of  this  region  are,  almost 
without  exception,  of  sixteenth-century  foundation, 
and   include,    therefore,    the   majority   of   the   earliest 


172  VENEZUELA 

settlements  in  Venezuela.  Despite  the  fact  that  a 
railway  connects  Barquisimeto  with  the  coast,  com- 
munication with  much  of  Lara  is  only  carried  out  by 
primitive  means.  A  projected  branch  line  to  San 
Felipe,  capital  of  Yaracuy,  will  further  open  up  that 
fertile  valley,  and  the  products  of  northern  Falcon 
are  mainly  shipped  through  La  Vela  and  Curagao, 
Both  upland  and  lowland  plains  are  very  suitable  for 
wheel  traflic,  and  natural  carreteras  there  contrast 
favourably  with  the  bridle  paths  of  the  hills,  though 
little  labour  has  been  expended  upon  them, 

Barquisimeto  was  founded  in  1552,  at  the  northern 
edge  of  the  plain,  which  extends  thence  to  Tocuyo, 
in  appearance  like  the  dry  bed  of  an  ancient  lake. 
As  the  centre  for  the  produce  of  the  northern  Andes, 
as  well  as  Lara,  the  town  has  a  busy  aspect,  busier 
even  than  Maracaibo.  In  the  recent  troublous  years 
the  conflicting  parties  seem  to  have  met  in  and  around 
Barquisimeto,  and  as  a  result  one  is  struck  by  the 
heavy  iron  doors,  often  pitted  with  bullet  marks,  of 
the  big  commercial  houses,  which  were  thus  at  times 
turned  into  fortresses.  The  plains  and  valleys  of 
Lara  sent  to  the  markets  of  Barquisimeto  their  wheat, 
coffee,  cocoa,  beans,  sugar,  and  sugar-spirit,  while 
the  aloes  of  this  region  furnish  not  only  cocui  (a 
spirit  distilled  from  cocuiza)  but  also  fibre  for  the 
manufacture  of  sacks,  bridles,  and  hammocks,  for 
which   the  town   is  celebrated. 

The  British  built  and  owned  Bolivar  Railway  con- 
nects Barquisimeto  with  its  port  of  Tucacas,  and 
a  steamer  of  the  Company  carries  goods  and 
passengers  thence  to  Puerto  Cabello,  Tucacas  being 
only  an  internal  port  without  a  custom-house.  The 
gauge  of  the  line  is  only  two  feet,  but  a  considerable 
amount  of  traffic  is  carried.  Leaving  the  open  and  dry 
plains  of  Barquisimeto,  it  climbs  through  scrub  (prob- 
ably excellent  cotton  land)  to  Duaca,  and  then  begins 
the  ascent  of  the  humid  coastal  slope,  along  a  valley 


LARA,    YARACUY,    AND    FALCON     173 

full  of  coffee,  sugar,  and  cacao  plantations,  but  little 
cultivation  has  been  carried  on  away  from  the  line, 
the  country  on  either  side  being  as  wild  and  as 
unknown  as  any  in  Venezuela.  Near  Tucacas  the 
swampy  forest  gives  place  to  open  sandy  plains,  as 
on  much  of  the  northern  coast  of  Venezuela. 

Below  Duaca,  a  well-built  and  picturesque  but 
apparently  sleepy  little  tovm,  the  railway  enters  the 
State  of  Yaracuy,  and  so  continues  to  beyond  the 
important  junction  of  El  Hacha,  where  the  Barquisi- 
meto  line  joins  that  from  the  copper-mines  of  Aroa. 
Originally  the  line  was  built  from  Tucacas  to  Aroa, 
the  El  Hacha-Barquisimeto  extension  being  known 
as  the  South-Western  of  Venezuela  ;  now  both  are 
united,  and  El  Hacha  to  Aroa  is  regarded  as  a 
branch  line. 

The  copper-mines  of  Aroa  have  been  known  from 
early  colonial  days,  and  even  in  1800  some  ore  was 
exported.  The  greatest  output  was  recorded  after 
the  concern  was  conceded  to  an  English  Company 
in  1880,  and  in  1891  (the  maximum  year)  38,341 
tons  of  ore,  with  a  smaller  quantity  of  25  per  cent, 
regulus,  was  shipped  from  Tucacas.  Three  years 
later  the  production  began  to  decrease  greatly,  and 
smelting- works  and  mines  alike  fell  into  disuse.  They 
have  now  been  reopened  by  an  English  syndicate, 
and,  under  Mr.  Scrutton's  energetic  management, 
have  already  commenced  to  pay  well.  In  the 
eighties  the  mines  of  Aroa  sent  to  Swansea  so  mugh 
ore  and  regulus  that  in  the  statistics  they  ranged 
next  to  Chile. 

The  mines,  or  the  entrances  to  them,  are  in  a 
beautiful  limestone  gorge,  full  of  the  blue  and  green 
tinted  pebbles  and  boulders  which  led  the  pioneers 
to  search  for  the  source  of  the  mineral.  On  the  left 
bank  there  are  some  cottages  situated  under  an  over- 
hanging rock  which  would  give  a  nervous  inmate 
qualms,  but  presumably  here  as  elsewhere  familiarity 


174  VENEZUELA 

breeds  contempt.  The  manager's  and  other  white 
houses  up  the  valley  look  charming  with  their  girdles 
of  orange-trees,   bananas,   and  papayas. 

Wash-outs  in  the  gorge  sometimes  cause  consider- 
able damage,  and  at  the  time  of  our  visit  the  mine 
was  temporarily  closed  owing  to  the  disablement  of 
the  centrifugal  pumps  buried  under  the  debris  brought 
down  by  exceptionally  heavy  rains  ;  four  inches  in 
an  hour  was,  I  think,  the  fall  during  part  of  the 
downpour,  which  also  carried  away  or  buried  big 
pieces   of  the  Bolivar  Railway. 

As  one  walks  through  the  galleries  with  a  little 
acetylene  lamp  clouds  of  bats  brush  past,  and  the 
floor  is  alive,  where  dry,  with  cockroaches.  The 
most  recently  opened  parts  develop  a  very  high 
temperature  owing  to  the  oxidation  of  the  copper 
pyrites,  and  in  "  El  Purgatorio,"  as  it  is  called,  one 
finds  it  difficult  to  breathe  for  a  moment  until  a 
slight  effort  of  will  forces  the  lungs  to  take  in  the 
hot  air.  In  many  of  the  older  workings  there  are 
quantities  of  beautiful  stalactites  and  stalagmites  in 
all  shades  of  blue  and  green.  Unfortunately,  the 
copper-salts  which  colour  them  also  make  them 
brittle,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  bring  one  away 
without  injury.  After  these  the  ore  looks  very  black 
and  dingy,  though  the  freshly  broken  surface  glitters 
brightly  enough. 

Near  the  edge  of  the  forest  on  the  Bolivar  Rail- 
way is  the  station  of  Palma  Sola,  whence  a  branch 
is  now  being  surveyed  across  the  Aroa  and  up  the 
Yaracuy  Valley  to  San  Felipe,  a  great  boon  to  the 
agricultural  interests  of  the  State.  There  is  a  road 
from  the  town  to  Puerto  Cabello,  along  which  the 
merchandise  now  travels,  but  it  is  often  impassable 
in  the  rains  ;  the  comparatively  easy  task  of  engineer- 
ing a  railway  here  to  connect  with  the  nearer  port  of 
Tucacas  will  probably  enable  it  to  be  carried  out 
profitably  at  the  same  time  tliat  it  provides  a  cheap 


LARA,    YARACUY,    AND    FALCON     175 

and  rapid  mode  of  transit  for  the  coffee,  cocoa,  and 
hides  of  these  rich  agricultural  and  pastoral  valleys. 

In  the  State  of  Yaracuy,  but  south  of  the  water- 
shed at  the  western  extremity  of  the  coastal  Cor- 
dillera, lies  Nirgua,  founded  in  1628  in  the  pictur- 
esque alluvial  plain  of  the  Buria.  Copper-mines  have 
been  known  and  worked  here  from  very  early  times, 
but  I  believe  they  are  quiescent  now  ;  there  are  also, 
it  is  said,  deposits  of  sulphur  in  the  neighbourhood. 
The  fertile  plains  and  the  surrounding  hills  send  to  the 
markets  of  Nirgua  coffee,  cocoa,  beans,  sugar,  alcohol, 
cotton,  and  wheat,  a  goodly  list  for  one  small  town. 

Twenty  miles  away  from  Nirgua  to  the  west  in 
a  straight  line,  though  very  much  more  by  existing 
roads,  is  Yaritagua,  the  only  other  town  of  note 
in  Yaracuy,  connected  by  road  with  Barquisimeto. 
This  is  a  good  place  for  tobacco,  and  cigarettes  used 
to  be  manufactured  in  considerable  quantities  from 
the  local  leaf  ;  also  it  has  its  share  of  the  ubiquitous 
coft'ee  and  sugar. 

A  natural  cart-road  enables  the  produce  of 
Yaritagua  to  be  shipped  through  Barquisimeto,  the 
route  passing  by  the  small  town  of  Cabudare.  A 
similar  road  connects  Barquisimeto  with  Tocuyo 
rather  more  than  forty  miles  to  the  south-west. 

Though  the  population  of  Tocuyo  to-day  is  scarcely 
two-thirds  that  of  Barquisimeto,  it  is  the  older  town  of 
the  two,  being  founded  by  Carvajal  in  1545.  Its  sub- 
stantial, well-built  houses  bear  witness  to  its  former 
importance,  and  even  now  there  is  a  continual  stream 
of  carts  passing  along  the  road  to  the  capital,  bearing 
not  only  coffee,  sugar,  and  cocoa,  which  grow  in 
the  plantations  of  the  valley  near  the  town,  but  also 
wheat  and  temperate  fruits  from  the  hills.  There 
are  extensive  potreros  in  the  district,  too,  for  raising 
sheep  as  well  as  cattle.  The  club  building  is  a 
fine  old  mansion,  comparable  to  any  in  Caracas,  with 
a  large  patio  and  broad  veranda. 


176  VENEZUELA 

The  "  road  "  to  Barquisimeto  is  merely  a  casual 
track  over  the  sand  and  gravel  plains,  but  it  serves 
its  purpose,  and  one  may  make  the  journey  in  a 
strange  vehicle,  rather  like  a  stage-coach  in  shape 
when  seen  from  a  distance,  though  without  any  out- 
side seats,  for  the  very  good  and  sufficient  reason 
that  the  apparently  solid  sides  and  top  are  of  oil- 
cloth and  can  be  rolled  up  if  desired.  In  leaving 
Tocuyo,  el  Sehor  cochero  tells  us  we  must  be 
ready  to  start  at  4  a.m.,  reserving  to  himself  the 
right  to  turn  up  at  two  or  five  as  may  suit  him  best. 
This  brings  us  to  Quibor,  a  little  to^vn,  whose  chief 
trade  is  in  the  temperate  fruits  (quinces,  &c.)  of  the 
Sanare  Hills,  at  about  eight,  and  we  leave  again 
after  midday,  arriving  dusty  and  sore  at  Barquisi- 
meto by  5.30. 

There  are  reported  minas  of  metal  and  coal 
round  about  Tocuyo,  and  the  latter  certainly  exists, 
though,  like  the  less  authentic  minerals,  it  has  never 
been  worked. 

If,  in  place  of  travelhng  to  the  capital  of  the 
State,  we  followed  down  the  river  from  which  Tocuyo 
takes  its  name,  we  should  shortly  find  the  cactus- 
covered  hills  replaced  on  the  left  bank  by  grass 
plains,  the  llanos  of  Carora,  in  the  middle  of  which 
the  town  of  the  same  name  was  founded  in  1572. 
Like  most  of  these  more  ancient  towns  of  Venezuela, 
it  contains  many  substantial  buildings,  and  it  is  the 
market  centre  for  the  grazing  lands  surrounding  it, 
where  sheep  as  well  as  cattle  are  raised.  From  more 
remote  districts  come  goats  on  the  one  hand,  coffee 
and  cane  on  the  other,  these  last  from  the  fertile 
valleys  to  the  west.  There  are  said  t(i,be  outcrops  of 
coal  near  by,  a  by  no  means  improbable  occurrence. 

A  whim  of  ex-President  Castro's  led  to  the 
expenditure  of  a  considerable  sum  on  the  surveying 
and  construction  of  a  cart-road  over  the  Sierra 
Empalada  to   San   Timoteo,  on  the   Lake  of  Mara- 


LARA,    YARACUY,    AND    FALCON     177 

caibo.  It  was  manifestly  impossible  that  such  a 
scheme  could  succeed,  involving,  as  it  did,  the  use 
of  a  hundred  miles  of  road  over  a  range  of  hills 
instead  of  some  sixty  miles  across  the  level  to  the 
Bolivar  Railway  terminus  at  Barquisimeto  ;  at  the 
present  time  much  of  the  road  has  fallen  into  disuse, 
the  remainder  forming  a  standing  monument  to 
misplaced  energy. 

In  addition  to  the  level  road  to  Barquisimeto  there 
is  another  which  in  some  fifty  miles  brings  us  to 
Siquisique,  the  head  of  possible  steam  navigation  on 
the  Tocuyo  River.  Up  to  this  point  steamers  were 
run  for  a  short  time,  but  the  undeveloped  country 
on  either  bank  was  not  brought  under  cultivation 
as  a  result,  and  the  produce  of  the  rest  failed  to  make 
the  venture  pay.  Once  again,  want  of  population 
and  of  incentives  to  labour  have  proved  the  main 
drawbacks  in  a  feasible  project.  The  hills  both  north 
and  south  of  the  lower  river  produce,  and  are  capable 
of  producing  more,  wheat,  coffee,  and  cocoa  ;  down- 
stream there  are  virgin  forests  of  valuable  timber, 
and  on  the  north  bank  indications  of  petroleum  over 
a  wide  area  almost  uninhabited  and  unexplored. 

From  Siquisique  several  roads  cross  the  hills  on 
the  borders  of  Lara  and  Falcon  to  the  towns  of  the 
latter.  Only  one  town  of  any  importance  (San  Luis) 
is  situated  in  the  hills,  but  about  half  the  area  of 
the  State  is  accounted  for  by  grass -clad  hills  and 
fertile  valleys,  the  remainder  being  the  better  known 
coastal  plain,  with  its  dry  climate  and  cactus  vege- 
tation,   a    repetition    of    the    Barquisimeto    plateau. 

Coro,  now  only  the  capital  of  a  State,  but  once  the 
capital  of  the  whole  province,  is  situated  on  the 
plains  at  the  base  of  the  peculiarly  shaped  penin- 
sula of  Paraguana.  Next  to  Cumana  it  is  the  oldest 
town  in  South  America,  and  has  frequently  been  the 
landing-place  for  troops  both  in  the  revolution  against 
Spain  and  in  the  course  of  domestic  quarrels.  The 
12 


178  VENEZUELA 

old  church,  known  as  the  Iglesia  Matrlz,  is  interest- 
ing as  the  first  cathedral  of  the  New  World,  but, 
like  the  rest  of  the  town,  it  has  fallen  upon  evil  days. 

The  flesh  and  hides  of  goats  are  the  chief  articles 
of  commerce  in  Coro.  Bred  at  little  cost  on  the 
cactus  plains,  they  give  returns  said  to  be  enormous. 
I  heard  of  one  owner  of  a  ranch  along  the  coast 
who,  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  years'  breeding 
of  and  trading  in  goats,  accumulates  sufficient  wealth 
to  travel  extensively  in  Europe,  returning  when  his 
money  is  gone  to  repeat  the  process.  The  coal-mines 
and  Salinas  of  the  region  count  for  little  in  com- 
parison with  this  simple  form  of  stock-farming,  but 
there  are  extensive  coal  deposits  in  the  foot-hills 
of  the  Cordillera  de  San  Luis,  whose  valleys  pro- 
duce maize,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  arrowroot,  chiefly  for 
local  consumption.  The  greater  part  of  the  foothills 
is  forest -covered,  and  the  timber  and  vegetable 
products  of  these  will  continually  add  to  the  revenues 
of  the  State  in  the  future.  Last,  but  not  least,  the 
coastal  plain  near  Coro  is  admirably  situated  for 
the  cultivation  of  cocuiza  and  other  aloes,  and 
attempts  are  now  being  made  to  manufacture  fibre 
equal  in  quality  to  that  of  Mexico.  Already  Coro 
makes  sacks  and  hammocks  from  cocuiza,  in  addition 
to  soap  and  cigarettes,  the  only  other  industries  of 
the  place.  All  the  produce  exported  passes  along 
the  seven-mile  railway  to  the  harbour  of  La  Vela, 
not  to  be  confused  with  the  cape  of  the  same  name 
far  to  the  west  in  Colombia. 

Capatarida,  a  small  town  on  the  coast  some  thirty 
miles  west  of  Coro,  is  chiefly  famed  for  the  excellent 
quality  of  the  tobacco  grown  in  the  v-alley  south  of 
the  town.  The  plains  of  Falcon  and  the  peninsula 
of  Paraguana  are,  however,  chiefly  devoted  to  goat- 
farming,  the  character  of  the  country  being  almost 
identical  with  that  of  Curasao,  and  most  of  the  other 
coastal   islands. 


I  III  o 


WILI  EMSTAI)  :     (■URA(;A0. 


4^ 


HARilorK  :     WII.LE-M.^TAJ 


LARA,    YARACUY,    AI^D    FALCON     179 

Curagao  is,  of  course,  Dutch  territory,  but  the 
relations  of  the  island  with  Venezuela  are  very  close 
— too  close,  in  fact,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
Government.  The  legitimate  and  registered  trade 
between  the  two  is  small,  but  an  enormous  amount 
of  smuggling  is  carried  on,  while  Willemstad  has 
more  than  once  proved  a  convenient  base  for  intend- 
ing revolutionaries. 

The  town  is  a  strange  mixture  both  in  people  and 
language,  and  in  character  a  strong  contrast  to 
those  of  the  Venezuelan  coast.  If  one  is  up  betimes 
on  board,  watching  for  the  entrance  to  the  harbour, 
one  wonders  if  it  is  not  really  a  confused  dream 
of  Flushing  and  a  desert  island,  so  much  does  the 
port  resemble  a  homely  Dutch  town  transported 
bodily  into  the  heat  of  the  West  Indies,  and  set  down 
on  a  barren  rock.  When  the  steamer  has  entered 
the  harbour,  and  the  pontoon  bridge  has  swung  back 
behind  her,  one  can  hardly  believe  that  the  land 
of  maiiana  and  dolce  far  niente  is  only  a  few  miles 
away  across  the  sea. 

Harbour  police,  in  plain  but  good  blue  uniforms 
and  helmets,  in  place  of  dirty  white  ducks  adorned 
with  much  gold  braid,  pronounce  us,  after  some  con- 
versation in  very  guttural  Spanish,  fit  and  proper 
persons  to  enter  her  Majesty's  colony  of  Curagao,  and 
we  go  on  shore  to  examine  this  fragment  of  Holland. 
The  very  cleanliness  of  the  town  seems  the  cause 
of  the  only  discomfort  experienced  as  one  lands,  for 
the  dry  soil  will  not  support  avenues  of  trees,  and 
the  glare  from  the  white  stone  pavements  and  walls 
is  almost  painful.  The  names  over  the  shops  are 
sometimes  Dutch,  sometimes  Portuguese  and  Spanish, 
often  combinations  of  these,  while  the  people  who 
fill  the  streets  are  largely  negroes  of  a  strong,  healthy 
type,  talking  a  language  which  sounds  like  Dutch 
as  far  as  accent  is  concerned,  but  on  fuller  acquaint- 
ance  develops   a    likeness    to    Spanish.      Those   who 


180  VENEZUELA 

know  it  say  that  all  languages  contribute  to  genuine 
Curagao,  and  I  am  almost  certain  that  I  heard  a 
Russian  word  used  by  one  dusky  Dutch  subject.  The 
notice  on  the  end  of  the  bridge  tells  us  alternately 
to  "  Langzaam  rijden  "  and  "  Kore  poko  poko,'"  the 
latter  being  the  genuine  Curagao  "  as  she  is  wrote," 
practically  Spanish  spelt  phonetically. 

On  the  east  side  of  the  harbour  are  the  Government 
buildings,  Post  Office,  &c.,  together  with  the  large 
business  houses  and  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church. 
As  it  was  August  when  I  visited  the  island,  most 
of  the  comfortable-looking  mansions  were  empty,  the 
owners   being  away  on   home   visits. 

The  prosperity  of  Willemstad,  it  is  evident,  does 
not  depend  upon  natural  products,  of  which  there 
are  none  ;  even  the  oranges  with  which  the  famous 
liqueur  was  made  are  not  grown  in  Curagao  now, 
but  the  building  of  small  sloops  and  supplies  for 
these,  with  the  custom  of  visitors  who  come  to  buy 
in  a  free-trade  market  and  avoid  the  all  but  pro- 
hibitive prices  behind  Venezuela's  tarifif  wall,  provide 
work  for  the  numerous  warehouses,  not  to  mention 
the  illicit  trade  with  the  mainland.  The  official 
returns  show  straw  hats  as  the  most  considerable 
export,  although  formerly  a  fair  amount  of  guano 
and  phosphate  of  lime  was  shipped  away.  With  a 
water  supply  dependent  upon  casual  rains  and  a  few 
shallow  wells,  there  can  be  no  drainage  system,  but 
the  dryness  of  the  climate  and  the  stringent  sanitary 
regulations  combine  to  give  Curagao  absolute  free- 
dom from  epidemics  and  a  deserved  reputation  as  a 
health  resort. 

The  smaller  islands  of  the  Las  Aves,  Los  Roques, 
and  other  groups  used,  like  Curagao,  to  export  a 
considerable  quantity  of  guano,  and  phosphate  pro- 
duced by  atmospheric  action  from  coral  limestones 
under  the  guano.  Now,  however,  the  few  small 
settlements  are  mere  fishing  villages,  whose  catch  is 
sold  on  the  mainland. 


CHAPTER    XII 

IN   THE   "ORIENTE" 

Restricted  use  of  term  "  Oriente" — Margarita — Asuncion — Porlamar 
and  Panipatar— Macanao — A  primitive  population — The  priests, 
the  comet,  and  the  people — Cubagua — Pearl  fisheries — Coche — 
Cumana— Las  Casas — A  diving  feat — Petroleum  and  salt — Fruit 
— The  Manzanares— Cumanacoa — In  the  hills— San  Antonio 
and  its  church — The  Guacharo  cave — Humboldt — Virgin  terri- 
tory— Punceres — Oil-springs — The  Bermudez  asphalt  lake — 
Cariipano — "  Ron  bianco  " — Sulphur  and  gold — Rio  Caribe — 
Peninsula  of  Paria — Cristobal  Colon — An  ambitious  project — 
The  Delta — the  Golfo  Triste — Pedernales— Asphalt  and  outlaws 
— In  the  aulas — Tucupita— Barrancas — Imataca  iron-mines — 
Canadian  capital  for  Venezuela — Guayana  Vieja. 

As  the  term  "  Oriente  "  is  used  to-day  in  Venezuela, 
it  includes  the  cities  of  Barcelona,  Maturin  and 
Ciudad  Bolivar,  with  their  surrounding  districts,  but 
since  these  are  more  fitly  considered  in  succeeding 
chapters,  the  use  of  the  v^^ord  is  restricted  here  to 
the  eastern  part  of  the  Caribbean  Hills,  the  Island 
of  Margarita,  and  the  Delta  of  the  Orinoco. 

The  "  Oriente  "  thus  includes  those  parts,  not  only 
of  Venezuela  but  of  the  New  Continent,  which  were 
first  visited  by  Europeans.  The  names  of  the  Boca 
del  Draco  (between  the  peninsula  of  Paria  and 
Trinidad)  and  of  Margarita  were  given  by  Colum- 
bus ;  Cubagua  supported  the  first  settlement  of 
adventurers,  and  the  shores  westward  of  Cumana 
were  visited  by  Alonso  de  Ojeda  on  his  first  voyage. 

Margarita  lies  some  twenty  miles  north  of  the 
mainland,   with   the    islands   of   Cubagua    and   Coche 


182  VENEZUELA 

between.  It  is  practically  two  islands  joined  by  a 
sandspit,  the  two  halves  being  equally  rugged  and 
mountainous  ;  the  western  is  known  as  Macanao, 
and  contains  but  few  inhabitants,  the  towns  being 
all  in  the  eastern   half  or  Margarita  proper. 

With  the  surrounding  smaller  islands  it  constitutes 
the  State  of  Nueva  Esparta.  The  capital,  Asuncion, 
founded  in  1524,  is  in  a  sheltered  valley  at  the 
eastern  end  of  the  island.  A  ruined  fort  above  the 
town,  ruins  of  substantial  houses,  grass-grown  streets 
and  a  general  atmosphere  of  decay  make  the  town 
somewhat  depressing.  To  the  south-east  are  the  ports 
of  Pampatar  and  Porlamar,  the  former  the  most 
important,  since  to  this  come  European  liners,  but 
Porlamar  has  the  larger  population.  The  bay  of 
Porlamar  is  generally  full  of  small  fishing-smacks 
and  pearling  vessels,  which  carry  on  two  of  the  chief 
industries  of  the  island,  though  from  Pampatar,  with 
the  pearls,  they  export  also  tiles,  hats  of  straw  and 
of  a  kind  of  velvet  known  as  pelo  giiatno,  ham- 
mocks,  and  embroidery. 

The  western  half  of  Margarita  is  dry  and  barren 
for  the  most  part,  with  small,  scrubby  vegetation, 
but  here  and  there  one  finds  grass -covered  glades 
and  more  fertile  soil  ;  the  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
fishermen,  living  in  great  poverty,  with  poor  diet, 
yet  contented  and  at  the  same  time  amazingly 
ignorant  of  the  outside  world.  Who  may  be 
president  in  Caracas  matters  little  to  them,  and  Euro- 
pean countries  and  cities  are  unknown.  Probably 
fibre  could  be  grown  here  with  advantage,  but  the 
only  land  industry  appears  to  be  the  farming  of 
goats  or  cattle.  Some  of  the  outlying  homesteads 
are  conducted  on  patriarchal  lines,  and  the  families 
of  the  owners  are  occasionally  enormous.  Many  of 
the  people  seem  to  be  direct  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Guaiquerias,  of  strangely  Mongolian  appear- 
ance. 


IN    THE    "  ORIENTS  "  183 

In  Porlamar  one  may  arrange  for  a  passage  in 
one  of  the  little  sloops  or  schooners  to  any  of  the 
other  islands  of  the  State,  and  it  is  as  well  to  be 
prepared  for  a  drenching  if  it  is  necessary  to  sail 
against  the  wind.  Porlamar  is  a  triste  little  town 
with  about  3,500  inhabitants.  We  had  the  good  (or 
ill)  fortune  to  be  there  on  the  night  when  this  planet 
passed  through  the  tail  of  Halley's  comet,  which  for 
some  time  previous  had  been  a  magnificent  sight  in 
the  early  morning.  The  priest  had  given  out  that 
the  earth  was  to  be  destroyed  by  the  comet  at  2  a.m. 
prompt  unless  perhaps  repentance,  signified  by  de- 
votion to  mother-Church,  was  suf^ciently  general  to 
avert  disaster.  As  a  result  all  the  evening  the 
churches,  brilliantly  lighted  by  myriads  of  candles, 
were  crammed  with  devotees  who  professed  and  doubt- 
less felt  penitence  for  past  misdeeds,  if  thereby  they 
might  prevent  the  threatened  destruction  or  secure 
safety  for  themselves.  Two  o'clock  came  and  passed, 
but,  the  night  being  cloudy,  there  was  no  sign  of 
the  comet,  and  the  crowd  flocked  to  the  club  and 
the  hotiquins  to  make  up  for  lost  time.  It  was  in 
vain  for  the  priests  to  tell  them  that  the  comet  would 
come  back  if  they  persisted  in  their  evil  ways  :  the 
churches  have  remained  as  empty  as  they  were  before 
the  months  of  the  comet. 

After  this  digression  we  may  glance  at  Cubagua, 
the  once  famous  pearl  island,  now  perhaps  on  the 
eve  of  obtaining  a  new  importance  as  a  source  of 
petroleum.  There  are  springs  of  mineral  oil  along 
the  northern  shore,  a  tiny  fishing  village  at  the  south- 
west corner,  one  small  patch  of  cultivation  with  a 
single  hut  near  the  centre  of  the  island,  and  a  small 
cattle-ranch  at  the  eastern  end,  and  that  is  all — not 
a  visible  trace  on  all  its  barren  surface  of  the  once 
great  city  of  New  Cadiz.  The  eastern  end  is  the 
most  pleasant  to-day,  supporting  more  vegetation 
than  the  rest,  and  it  is  here,  I  was  told,  that  diligent 


184  VENEZUELA 

search  and  delving  will  reveal  relics  of  the  fifteenth- 
century  settlement.  Nothing  seems  to  have  been 
done  in  the  way  of  archaeological  exploration,  and 
even  the  old  coat-of-arms  graven  in  stone  was  picked 
up  by  chance  on  the  shore  to  be  lost  again  (appar- 
ently) in  Cardcas.  It  was  displayed  at  the  Bolivar 
Centenary  Exhibition  in  1883,  and  lay  neglected  in 
the  patio  of  the  building  in    1891. 

The  west  end  of  the  island  has  a  fine  bay,  with 
deep  water,  sheltered  from  the  constant  east  wind,  so 
that  it  is  hard  to  see  for  what  reason  the  city  was 
founded  at  the  other  extremity  ;  harder  still,  perhaps, 
to  understand  why  it  was  founded  at  all  on  a  barren 
island  where  practically  every  drop  of  water  had 
to  be  brought  from  Margarita  or  from  the  Rio 
Manzanares  at  Cumand.  Its  end  came  after  its 
partial  destruction  by  earthquake  and  hurricane  in 
I543>  with  the  subsequent  decrease  in  the  output 
of  the  pearl  fisheries,  already  spoilt  by  the  extrava- 
gant and  careless  exploitation  of  the  Spaniards,  who 
soon  paid  more  attention  to  those  of  the  neighbour- 
ing island  of  Coche.  It  was  infamous  during  its 
existence  for  the  cruelties  of  its  slave  market,  where 
the  captive  Indians  of  the  mainland  were  branded 
with  the  initial  letter  of  the  city,  and  even  after 
its  final  abandonment  the  memory  of  that  fatal  "  C  " 
rankled  in  the  minds  of  the  unfortunate  Caribs  and 
Chaymas. 

Now,  however,  barring  the  heat  in  the  valleys 
and  to  leeward  of  the  cliffs  of  its  treeless  surface, 
the  island  is  pleasant  enough,  and  the  clear  shallows 
with  their  safe  bathing-places  are  a  compensation  for 
the  midday  heat,  while  in  the  rock-pools  the  squids, 
water-snakes,  and  many-coloured  shells  of  the 
tropical  seas  are  a  continual  source  of  delight  (to  the 
eye)  ;  often,  too,  one  may  see  the  giant  rays  splash- 
ing in  the  strait  between  the  island  and  Margarita,  like 
huge  pieces  of  armour-plate  leaping  from  the  water. 


IN    THE    -ORIENTE"  185 

Coche  still  possesses  a  town  in  San  Pedro  de 
Coche,  whose  population  live  partly  by  their  fish- 
eries, but  chiefly  by  the  exploitation  of  the  white 
salt  of  their  salinas,  almost  the  finest  in  Vene- 
zuela. 

Separated  from  Cubagua  and  Coche  by  only  a 
few  miles  of  shallow  water  is  the  peninsula  of  Araya, 
behind  which  lies  the  Gulf  of  Cariaco,  a  long  east 
and  west  arm  of  the  sea.  At  the  entrance  on  the 
south  side  is  Cumand,  capital  of  the  State,  which, 
since  the  chief  city  was  the  birthplace  of  Jose  de 
Sucre,  of  revolutionary  fame,  is  now  called  after 
him,  while  the  actual  port  of  Cumana  is  known  as 
Puerto  Sucre.  The  town  was  founded  in  1520,  and 
has  a  special  interest  in  that  it  owed  much  in  its 
early  years  to  the  labours  of  Bartolome  de  las  Casas, 
It  has  more  than  once  suffered  severely  from  earth- 
quakes, and  these  earth  tremors  have,  at  times, 
played  a  considerable  part  in  its  history. 

The  town  is  connected  with  the  port  by  about  half 
a  mile  of  dusty  road  across  the  sand-flats,  and  along- 
side runs  a  tramway,  the  motive  power  for  which  is 
supplied  by  mules  ;  projects  for  utilising  steam- 
engines  have  been  formed  but  have  never  material- 
ised, though  an  efficient  service  ought  to  pay.  To 
the  east  the  Gulf  of  Cariaco  stretches  away  for  about 
fifty  miles,  with  a  mean  width  of  six  or  seven.  At 
the  eastern  end  its  waters  are  covered  with  wild 
fowl  of  all  kinds,  and  the  local  peasants  catch  them 
for  their  plumage  by  diving  under  the  birds  and 
drowning  them,  a  feat  necessitating  a  considerable 
development  of  fish-like  qualities. 

At  the  western  end  of  the  peninsula  of  Araya  is 
the  site  of  the  old  castle  of  Araya,  built  at  the 
suggestion  of  Las  Casas  for  the  preservation  of  peace 
between  the  Cubaguans  and  the  Caribs  ;  here,  too, 
are  the  extensive  salinas,  and  on  the  south  side  there 
are  oil-springs,  indicating  deposits  whose  value  and 


186  VENEZUELA 

extent  have  still  to  be  investigated.  The  product  of 
the  salt-pans  is,  both  in  quality  and  quantity,  second 
only  to  that  of  Coche,  and  amounts  to  some  6,000 
tons   in  the  year. 

The  neighbourhood  of  Cumand,  along  the  banks 
of  its  river,  the  Manzanares,  is  famous  for  fruits  of 
all  kinds,  principally  pineapples,  grapes,  and 
mangoes  ;  the  less  fertile  hills  look  like  cotton 
country,  but  none  is  grown,  or  very  little.  The  chief 
exports  of  Puerto  Sucre  are  coffee,  tobacco,  sugar, 
beans,  and  hides,   brought  from  the  interior. 

This  produce  is  carried  on  mule-back  along  the 
mountain  roads  of  Sucre.  The  main  route  from  the 
interior  follows  the  Manzanares  for  most  of  its  course, 
but  the  last  few  leagues  lie  over  a  steep  ridge,  a 
shorter  but  more  troublesome  route  than  that  along 
the  river,  were  the  latter  properly  looked  after.  The 
upper  valley  of  the  Manzanares  has  some  beautiful 
pieces  of  scenery  as  the  gorge  is  followed  through 
the  limestone  hills  ;  until  Cumanacoa  is  reached, 
however,  fifty  miles  from  Cumand,  there  is  no  culti- 
vation in  the  valley,  and  little  possibility  of  it,  and 
the  coastal  region  generally  seems  only  fit  for  cotton 
or  fibre  cultivation. 

Round  Cumanacoa  there  are  fertile  hillsides  and 
rich  alluvial  flats,  chiefly  devoted  to  coffee  and  sugar 
or  beans.  When  the  town  was  founded  by  Domingo 
Arias  in  1 7 1 7,  he  named  it  San  Baltazar  de  las 
Arias,  but  as  in  the  case  of  Cumand,  the  old  Italian 
name  of  the  district  has  ousted  the  later  Spanish 
one.  Above  Cumanacoa  the  valley  narrows  down 
into  a  gorge  running  up  into  the  mountain-mass  on 
the  borders  of  Sucre  and  Monagas,  the  watershed 
forming  the  boundary  between  the  two  States.  On 
the  high,  open  grass-lands  there  is  pasturage  for 
many  more  sheep  and  cattle  than  one  sees  at  present, 
and  the  change  in  climate  from  the  hot,  damp 
valleys   is   very   pleasant,   though   somewhat   sudden. 


IN    THE    "ORIENTE"  187 

Some  twenty-five  miles  southward  of  Cumanacoa 
is  the  town  of  San  Antonio,  in  Humboldt's  time  a 
flourishing  mission  with  a  massive  stone  church  built 
entirely  by  the  Indians  ;  the  church,  with  its  beauti- 
fully bright  frescoes,  is  still  standing,  but  sadly  in 
want  of  repair,  and  one  of  the  towers  is  cracked 
and  overgrown  at  the  base.  Four  or  five  miles  to 
the  south-east  lies  the  Caripe  valley,  famous  for 
its  tobacco,  and  for  the  Guacharo  cavern  so  well 
described   by  Humboldt. 

From  his  account  a  good  idea  may  be  gained  of 
the  beauty  of  the  approach  and  the  impressiveness 
of  this  hole  in  the  limestone.  He  describes  how,  as 
he  and  Bonpland,  with  their  friends  and  guides  from 
the  Mission  Caripe,  travelled  up  the  valley,  they  were 
unable  to  see  the  mouth  of  the  cave  even  at  400 
paces  distant,  their  way  lying  under  an  overhanging 
cliff,  with  the  stream  almost  in  a  crevasse  below 
them  ;  then,  turning  a  corner,  they  were  suddenly  in 
full  view  of  the  opening,  80  feet  wide  and  72  feet 
high,  with  stalactites  and  stalagmites  within  and 
huge  trees  above,  while  the  aspect  was  different  from 
anything  of  the  kind  in  Europe  on  account  of  the 
luxuriant  tropical  vegetation  all  about.  As  they 
walked  through  the  cave  it  was  often  necessary  to 
step  into  the  stream,  which  was  only  2  feet  deep, 
while  overhead  the  Guacharos,'  from  which  the  cave 
has  its  name,  were  uttering  their  raucous  cries.  In 
the  broader  part  of  the  cave  the  Indians  were  accus- 
tomed to  venture  at  one  season  of  the  year  to  catch 
the  young  birds  for  their  fat,  which  they  used  in 
cooking  in  the  mission,  but  beyond  they  would  hardly 
go,  believing  the  spirits  of  their  departed  ancestors 
to  be  there.  At  the  limit  of  Humboldt's  exploration 
in  this  narrower  part  he  found  an  underground  water- 
fall, which  marks  the  visible  source  of  the  Rio 
Caripe. 

'  The  word  Guacharo  connotes  crying  or  lamenting  in  Spani.sh. 


188  VENEZUELA 

Thirty  miles  from  San  Antonio,  at  Aragua  de 
Maturin,  the  edge  of  the  hills  is  reached  and  the 
Llanos  begin,  but  to  the  north-east  there  lies  a  stretch 
of  little-known  territory,  chiefly  forest-clad  hills, 
capable  of  supporting  millions  of  cacao-trees  when  a 
growing  population  shall  settle  there.  Near  Punceres 
there  are  oil-springs,  and  at  other  points  in  the  region 
indications  of  petroleum  are  known,  which  may  one 
day  lead  to  the  development  of  this  rich  and  well- 
situated  stretch  of  country,  for  at  the  east  end  is 
the  old  Puerto  San  Juan  of  colonial  days,  with  a 
depth  of  water  in  the  caho  of  the  same  name  suffi- 
cient for  steam  or  sailing  craft  of  considerable  size. 
At  present  most  of  the  produce  of  all  the  northern 
part  of  Monagas,  as  well  as  of  Sucre,  passes  out  over 
the  hills  to  the  Caribbean. 

An  exception  to  the  above  must  be  made  in  the 
case  of  the  asphalt  from  the  Bermudez  Lake,  which 
is  shipped  across  to  Trinidad.  This  has  been  worked 
for  many  years  by  an  American  company,  and  is 
almost  as  well  known  as  the  famous  Pitch  Lake  of 
Trinidad.  It  was  once  thought  that  the  quantity 
of  asphalt  visible  was  much  greater  here,  but  fuller 
investigation  showed  that  though  a  larger  area  was 
covered  the  thickness  of  the  deposit  was  very  much 
less  than  in  Trinidad.  Over  32,000  tons  were 
exported   in   the   fiscal   year    1909-10. 

The  principal  port  of  the  Oriente  is  Carupano, 
on  the  north  coast,  midway  between  the  two 
peninsulas  of  Paria  and  Araya.  The  town,  seen 
from  a  steamer,  seems  to  be  as  much  huddled  up  at 
the  foot  of  the  mountains  as  La  Guaira,  but  in  a 
similar  way  it  extends  up  the  valleys  of  two  streams 
which  here  reach  the  sea.  Its  position  thus  makes 
it  hot,  though  it  is  sufficiently  open  to  the  sea  breezes 
to  be  healthy.  A  white  zigzag  line  up  the  slope 
behind  the  town  represents  the  road,  down  which 
comes   the   cocoa  of  the   hills   and   valleys   of  Sucre, 


IN    THE    "ORIENTE"  189 

for  which  Carupano  is  famous,  as  well  as  cotton, 
sugar,  timber,  and  alcohol.  This  last  is  a  spirit  of 
exceptional  purity,  and  the  "  white  rum  "  of  Carupano 
is  famed  throughout  the  country.  The  hills  about 
the  town  also  support  aloes,  of  the  fibre  of  which 
ropes  are  manufactured  in  the  town,  and  near  by 
there  are  potteries.  It  is  an  important  place,  then, 
with  its  population  of  some  i  i,ooo,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  the  steamers  which  visit  it  have  to  lie  in 
an  open  roadstead  sheltered  only  by  a  promontory  to 
the  east  from  the  prevalent  winds.  Sulphur  is  found 
near  by,  and,  it  is  said,  auriferous  quartz  of  high 
quality,  but  the  minerals  have  never  been  systematic- 
ally worked. 

A  few  miles  east  of  Carupano  is  the  small  port  of 
Rio  Caribe,  where  the  roadstead  is  not  sufficiently 
sheltered  to  allow  steamers  to  lie  ;  small  sailing 
craft  carry  away  the  local  produce,  which  consists 
principally  of  cacao.  Beyond  Rio  Caribe  is  the 
peninsula  of  Paria,  a  beautifully  wooded  mountain 
mass  rising  sheer  from  the  water's  edge  and  separated 
only  by  a  narrow  strait,  with  numerous  islands,  from 
Trinidad.  The  northern  side  of  the  peninsula  is 
practically  uninhabited,  but  the  coast  facing  the  Gulf 
of  Paria  has  several  settlements,  chiefly  occupied  in 
cultivating  cacao  or  cutting  timber  ;  their  produce 
is  shipped  across  to  Trinidad. 

Cristobal  Colon  is  the  most  easterly  port  of  Vene- 
zuela, and  its  position  at  the  eastern  end  of  the 
peninsula  of  Paria,  opposite  to  the  Delta  of  the 
Orinoco,  led  Castro  to  suppose  that  a  small  expendi- 
ture of  public  money  would  lead  to  a  diversion  of  all 
the  freight  now  passing  via  Port-of-Spain  to  Ciudad 
Bolivar,  from  Trinidad  to  Venezuela— an  ill-founded 
hope,  however,  as  events  proved,  for  the  roadstead 
is  very  poor,  open  to  a  continual  heavy  swell  coming 
in  through  the  Bocas,  which  could  only  be  overcome 
by    extensive    harbour-works,    the    cost    of    which    is 


190*  VENEZUELA 

entirely  unwarranted  by  the  circumstances  of  the 
case.  The  wharves  and  warehouses  erected  repre- 
sent, therefore,  a  sacrifice  of  public  zeal  to  a  private 
whim  as  reprehensible  as  the  construction  of  the 
Carora  and  San  Timoteo  road. 

The  trade  with  Southern  Venezuela  is  normally 
carried  on  through  Port-of-Spain,  goods  being  there 
transferred  to  the  Orinoco  steamer  Delta,  which 
crosses  the  Gulf  of  Paria  to  the  Cafio  Macareo,  up 
which  lies  the  normal  route  to  Ciudad  Bolivar. 
Columbus  named  the  Gulf  of  Paria  "  Golfo  Triste," 
and  when  one  has  left  the  beautiful  hills  and  islands 
on  the  north  side  behind  it  certainly  wears  a  very 
gloomy  aspect,   particularly   on   a  cloudy   day. 

Near  the  mouths  of  the  Orinoco  the  water  becomes 
muddy  and  musky,  full  of  floating  masses  of  water- 
hyacinth  or  dead  timber,  while  away  on  the  horizon 
one  can  see  a  dark  band  of  mangroves  marking 
the   beginning  of  the  swampy  Delta  territory. 

Pedernales  is  the  only  settlement  on  the  coast  of 
the  Delta  proper — a  gloomy,  unhealthy-looking  spot, 
though  the  islands  on  which  the  houses  are  built  are 
more  solid  than  the  surrounding  swamps.  For  the 
new  town  one  lands  at  a  stone  causeway  leading 
across  the  black  mud  to  a  single  row  of  houses, 
one  of  which  has  a  flagstaff  indicating  it  as  the  seat 
of  authority.  Crabs  crawl  on  the  slime  and  mud  all 
around,  and  the  black  patches  of  natural  asphalt 
along  the  main  street  and  foreshore  offer  no  contrast 
to  the  dirty  pools  which  necessitate  a  wary  eye  and 
foot  in  walking.  The  ruins  of  the  German  asphalt 
and  oil  refinery  a  mile  or  so  away  add  to  the  desolate 
effect,  and  the  greeting  from  outlaws  from  Trinidad, 
broken-down  whites,  and  villainous-looking  negroes 
make  one  even  more  ready  to  leave  this  fever-stricken 
spot,  where  the  floors  of  the  houses  are  flooded  by 
frequent  downpours  in  the  rainy  season.  The  in- 
habitants   exist    chiefly    by    cutting    and    exporting 


IN    THE    -ORIENTE'  191 

mangrove-stems  for  dyeing  and  tanning  purposes  ; 
the   asphalt   industry   seems   to   be   quiescent. 

Up  the  caiio  the  scene  is  one  of  great  beauty,  in 
the  varying  foliage  of  the  high  green  banks,  whose 
inundated  forest  is  hidden  by  the  mass  of  creepers, 
bamboos,  &c.,  which  come  down  to  the  water's 
edge  ;  beyond  only  the  tops  of  the  high  trees 
can  be  seen,  though  sometimes  behind  a  bank 
of  reeds  or  water-hyacinths,  looking  in  the 
distance  like  well-kept  turf,  the  forest  itself  can 
be  seen.  The  masses  of  floating  hyacinth,  as 
they  float  down  the  stream,  the  muddy  water,  and 
the  alligators  on  the  banks  here  and  there,  with  the 
macaws,  flamingoes,  and  parrots  above  and  around 
us,  complete  the  picture.  Here  and  there  through  the 
creepers  there  is  a  narrow  archway  cut  by  the 
Guaraunos,  who  live  behind  in  huts  raised  above 
the  swampy  ground,  and  eat,  drink,  and  clothe  them- 
selves with  the  products  of  the  Moriche  palm,  besides 
making  their  roofs  of  its  fronds. 

Higher  up  there  is  unflooded  forest  and  open 
country,  where  the  savannahs  bear  rich  grass  for 
thousands  of  herds  of  cattle,  and  on  the  banks 
scattered  groups  of  a  few  houses  mark  partly  civilised 
settlements.  A  fine  cacao  ranch  is  passed  on  the 
right  bank  not  far  below  Tucupita,  the  capital  of 
the  Delta-Amacuro  Territory,  a  dismal,  unhealthy- 
looking  place,  though  with  some  signs  of  commercial 
life  in  the  number  of  goletas  in  front,  not  to  mention 
steam  craft. 

Soon  after  Tucupita  the  mountains  of  Guayana 
come  in  sight  far  to  the  south,  and  an  hour  or  so 
brings  us  to  Barrancas,  the  lowest  port  on  the 
Orinoco  proper,  whose  grass -grown  streets  and  broad 
laguna  behind  the  settlement  do  not  suggest  health. 
Here  the  character  of  the  navigation  changes,  and 
one  begins  that  journey,  so  finely  described  by 
Humboldt,  up  the  thousands  of  miles  of  waterways, 


192  VENEZUELA 

which  will  conduct  the  traveller,  if  he  wishes  it, 
through  to  the  Amazon,  and  even  by  devious  routes 
to  the  Plate. 

The  Delta  territory  southward  of  the  main  stream 
consists,  in  part  at  least,  of  hilly  country,  and  here 
on  the  flanks  of  the  Sierra  Imataca  there  are  rich 
deposits  of  iron  ore,  soon  to  be  worked  by  a  Canadian 
company  by  whom  the  rights  have  recently  been 
acquired.  To  aid  in  the  work  the  company  has  the 
right  to  establish  a  port  (Nueva  Angostura)  with 
a  custom-house  on  the  Cafio  Corosimo,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  long  journey  up  to  Ciudad  Bolivar  and 
back. 

A  few  miles  above  Barrancas,  on  the  south  bank  of 
the  river,  is  the  castle  of  San  Thome,  now  known  as 
Guayana  Vieja  or  Los  Castillos,  where  Raleigh  had 
several  encounters  with  the  Spaniards  on  his  last 
fatal  expedition.  There  are  only  a  few  houses  round 
the  citadel  to-day,  and  the  place  possesses  no 
importance. 


CHAPTER    XIII 

THE   LLANOS 

MoNAGAS,  Anzoategui,  Guarico,  Cojedes,  Portuguesa,  Zamora, 

AND   ApURE 

The  great  plains — An  ocean  without  water — Buncos  and  mesas — 
Drought  and  flood — A  living  floor — Streams  which  flow  up- 
wards— Heat — Cattle  and  horses — Imported  butter — Methods 
of  milking — Civil  wars — Future  prospects — A  mean  annual 
temperature  of  91°  F. — Barcelona — History — Themassacre  of  the 
Casa  Fuerte — Survivors — Quanta — Coal  of  Naricual — Aragua  de 
Barcelona — Maturin — Low  death-rate — Cano  Colorado — Bongos 
— Athletic  boatmen — Casifas — Travelling  on  the  Llanos — an 
hato — Areo — An  ancient  cotton-press — The  men  of  Urica — 
Churches  and  wayside  shrines — A  gruesome  monument — Cala- 
bozo — Barbacoas — Ortiz — Zaraza  and  Camaguan — San  Carlos — 
Barinas — Guanare — Past  prosperity  and  future  prospects. 

The  llanos  of  northern  South  America  form  one 
of  the  remarkable  great  plains  of  the  world.  They 
stretch  from  the  Orinoco  Delta  in  the  east  right  to 
the   Cordillera  of  the  Andes  in  the  west. 

The  foothills  and  highlands  on  the  south  side  of 
the  coastal  range  limit  them  in  the  north,  and  where 
the  continuity  of  the  mountain  chain  is  broken,  near 
Barcelona,  they  reach  the  coast  itself. 

The  Orinoco  constitutes  their  southern  boundary  as 
far  west  as  its  junction  with  the  Apure.  Beyond 
this  point  the  course  of  the  Orinoco  is  from  south 
to  north  instead  of  from  west  to  east,  and  out  west 
of  this  the  great  plains  stretch  away  to  the  south 
far  beyond  the  southern  boundary  of  Venezuela.     In 

13  193 


194  VENEZUELA 

fact,  formerly  the  settlers  in  the  Venezuelan  llanos, 
who  knew  of  the  Argentine  pampas  and  their  cattle 
industry  away  somewhere  to  the  south  of  them,  but 
had  vague  notions  of  geography  and  no  knowledge 
of  the  high  country  in  central  South  America,  believed 
that  the  llanos  went  right  away  south  to  Patagonia. 

The  stretches  of  plain  from  the  south  of  Cumand, 
Barcelona,  and  Caracas  down  to  the  Orinoco  are 
called  the  llanos  of  Cumand,  Barcelona,  and  Caracas 
respectively,  while  the  extreme  west  comer  is  known 
as  the  llanos  of  Barinas. 

Near  the  northern  and  western  limits  of  this  great 
plain  there  is  a  gradual  passage  from  the  foothills 
and  the  adjoining  broken  country  to  the  plain,  but 
once  away  in  the  interior  the  flatness  of  the  llanos 
is  remarkable.  There  are  neither  the  undulations 
of  rolling  prairie-lands  nor  the  sandhills  and  ridges 
of  the  desert.  The  mountains  can,  of  course,  be 
seen  for  a  considerable  distance,  and  to  fully  realise 
the  curious  effect  of  the  llanos  it  is  necessary  to  be 
out  of  sight  of  them. 

In  some  places  nothing,  not  even  a  tree,  can  be 
seen  in  any  direction  but  the  flat  plain,  covered  with 
short  grass  ;  the  traveller  has  the  illusion  of  being 
on  the  ocean  stretching  in  every  direction  to  the 
horizon,  and  it  is  very  easy  to  get  lost  if  he  leaves 
a  beaten  track. 

The  llanos  are  not,  however,  absolutely  level  ;  there 
are  flat  banks  of  slight  elevation  (a  few  feet)  called 
buncos,  only  to  be  observed  at  their  edges,  and  ex- 
tending for  miles,  and  also  mesas,  convexities  gently, 
almost  imperceptibly,  rising  to  a  very  moderate 
height,  and  yet  sufficiently  important  to  form  water 
divides. 

A  glance  at  the  map  shows  that  in  the  llanos  south 
of  Caracas  the  streams  flow  right  across  Venezuela, 
from  the  hills  to  the  Orinoco  or  its  tributaries,  and, 
in   fact,   the   whole   of  the   western   llanos   are   very 


THE    LLANOS  195 

gently  inclined  to  the  south-east,  but  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  llanos  south  of  Cumana  we  see  a  water 
divide,  the  Rivers  Tigre  and  Guanipa  flowing  east- 
wards to  the  Delta,  and  farther  west  a  number  of 
rivers  flowing  into  the  Orinoco,  while  north  of  the 
divide  various  streams,  the  Aragua,  the  Unare,  and 
others,  empty  themselves  into  the  sea  west  of 
Barcelona,  this  being  due,  not  to  a  range  of  hills 
but  to  the  convexity  of  the  plains,  the  mesas  of 
Tigre,  Guanipa,  &c. 

It  is  hard  to  understand  that  lack  of  water  is 
one  of  the  difficulties  besetting  the  traveller  on  the 
llanos  when  one  sees  the  network  of  streams  indi- 
cated on  the  maps.  In  the  wet  season  there  is  of 
course  plenty  of  water,  but  in  the  dry  season  most 
of  these  tributary  streams  cease  to  flow.  Those  which 
take  their  rise  in  the  hilly  country  have,  indeed, 
some  water  in  their  upper  courses  all  the  time,  while 
in  their  lower  part  water  from  the  main  streams,  the 
Orinoco,  the  Apure,  the  Portuguesa,  and  others,  is 
able  to  back  a  good  way  up,  on  account  of  their  very 
gentle  fall,  but  their  middle  courses  run  quite  dry, 
pools  remaining  here  and  there  in  the  hollows.  The 
water  in  these  gets  somewhat  foul,  but  by  digging 
in  the  sand  in  their  neighbourhood  sweeter  water 
may  be  obtained.  The  River  Guarico,  which  partly 
dries  up  in  this  way,  is  said  formerly  to  have  flowed 
all  the  year  roimd.  It  takes  its  rise  near  L,ake 
Tacarigua  (Lake  of  Valencia),  and  perhaps  the  dimi- 
nution of  its  water  supply  is  due  to  the  same  cause 
as  the  shrinking  of  that  lake,  the  cutting  down,  of 
forest  and  the  cultivation  of  land  near  its  source. 
In  the  wet  season  many  of  the  streams  overflow  and 
flood  wide  areas,  the  cattle  having  to  take  refuge 
on  slightly  higher  tracts.  When  the  waters  again 
retire  many  alligators  and  water-snakes  bury  them- 
selves in  the  mud,  and  one  hears  of  people  being 
startled  by  sudden  upheavals  of  the  ground,  followed 


196  VENEZUELA 

by  the  emergence  of  some  disturbed  monster.  In 
one  case  a  traveller  settled  for  a  night  in  a  hut 
which  had  been  flooded  the  previous  season,  and 
the  barking  of  the  dogs  awoke  a  huge  alligator, 
who  heaved  up  the  floor,  made  a  dash  at  the  dogs, 
and  then  fled  into  the  open. 

Referring  once  again  to  the  fact  of  the  water  in 
the  main  streams  backing  up  the  tributaries,  so  very 
slight  is  the  inclination  of  the  western  plains,  and 
so  small  the  fall  of  its  streams,  that  swelling  of 
the  Orinoco,  or  wind  pressure,  will  force  the  water 
to  flow  up  the  tributaries,  whirlpools  forming  where 
the  opposing  currents  meet. 

Humboldt  states  that  under  these  conditions  many 
natives  firmly  believed  that  in  travelling  up  these 
streams  in  their  canoes  they  were  really  descending 
for  a  considerable  distance. 

Apart  from  the  change  of  season  from  wet  to  dry, 
the  great  factor  in  the  climate  of  the  llanos  is 
the  trade  wind,  which  blows  across  from  the  east  to 
the  west.  The  sandy  ground,  thinly  covered  with 
grass,  becomes  very  hot  in  the  daytime  and  heats 
the  air  near  it.  In  the  east  the  trade  wind,  arriving 
fresh  from  the  sea,  lessens  this  effect,  and  makes  the 
air  pleasant,  but  as  it  sweeps  across  the  hundreds 
of  miles  of  burning  soil  it  becomes  itself  heated, 
and  as  it  gets  farther  west  adds  to  the  discomfort, 
instead  of  correcting  it. 

In  fact,  the  western  llanos  are  very  hot,  and 
although  there  is  a  twelve-hours  night  in  which 
to  cool,  there  is  so  much  heat  to  be  radiated  off  from 
the  earth  that  when  dawn,  the  coolest  moment, 
arrives  very  little  diminution  of  temperature  has  been 
attained,  and  the  heating  process  begins  again. 

The  llanos,  then,  are  neither  prairie  nor  desert, 
but  hold  rather  an  intermediate  position,  varying 
towards  one  or  the  other  according  to  the  season. 
Various  grasses  suitable  for  feeding  live  stock  grow 


THE    LLANOS  197 

here,  and  there  are  some  trees,  notably  varieties  of 
mimosas,  one  with  sensitive  leaves  {dormideras)  very- 
good  for  cattle.  There  are  also  palms,  notably  the 
Corypa  palms,  or  palmas  de  Cobija,  with  hard  wood, 
which  are  good  for  building  huts,  their  leaves  being 
used  for  the  roof,  and  the  Moriche  palm  {Mauritia 
flexuosa),  which,  as  already  noticed,  furnishes  nearly 
all  the  necessities  of  life  to  the  Guarauno  Indians 
of  the  Delta. 

The  llanos  originally  contained  deer,  the  river 
swine  or  capybara  {chiguire),  and  the  jaguar,  also 
wild  ducks  and  geese.  In  1548  Cristobal  Rodriguez 
started  sending  cattle  into  the  plains  to  multiply.  In 
Humboldt's  time  the  live  stock  were  estimated  at 
1,200,000  oxen,  180,000  horses,  and  90,000  mules. 
Wars  and  diseases  have  at  different  times  interrupted 
their  increase.  Horses,  ^asses.  and  mules  were 
abundant  and  cheap  up  to  1843,  when  a  pestilence 
destroyed  nearly  all  the  wild  ones,  the  loss  being 
estimated  at  between  six  and  seven  million  beasts. 

The  cattle  are  believed  to  have  decreased 
between  the  years  1863-73  from  5,000,000  to 
1,400,000,  but  by  1888  were  estimated  at  8,500,000 
again. 

Cattle-breeding  should  be  a  great  and  important 
industry  for  Venezuela,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
it  will  be  put  on  a  better  footing  before  long.  An 
up-to-date  factory  for  killing  and  chilling  meat  has 
been  established  at  Puerto  Cabello,  and  the  first  ship- 
ment took  place  in  1910. 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties  this  industry  has  to 
contend  with  is  the  loss  of  condition  the  cattle  sustain 
on  their  journeys  to  the  port  from  distant  ranches. 
There  are,  however,  plenty  of  outlets  from  the  llanos, 
for  the  southern  part,  the  Orinoco,  and  for  the  west, 
central,  and  eastern  parts,  Puerto  Cabello,  Barcelona, 
and  Cairo  Colorado,  the  port  of  Maturin. 

Most  of  the  cattle  in  the  llanos  are  in  a  half-wild 


198  VENEZUELA 

state.  It  is  rather  melancholy  to  find  that  in  country- 
towns  surrounded  by  vast  areas  of  pasture-land  milk 
and  butter  are  often  difficult  to  procure  ;  in  fact,  a 
lot  of  imported  butter  is  used.  The  calves  generally 
get  all  the  milk,  and  the  cows  are  so  unused  to  being 
milked  for  the  benefit  of  mankind  that  it  is  necessary 
to  bring  the  calf  and  tie  it  to  the  mother's  leg  and 
allow  it  to  begin  the  operation  before  the  milkmen 
can  do  anything,  the  cow  apparently  being  deluded 
into  the  idea  that  she  is  feeding  the  calf  all  the  time. 
The  farmers  and  llaneros  in  most  parts  seem  surprised 
to  hear  that  milking  can  be  done  in  any  other  way. 

This  pastoral  industry,  like  the  others,  has  suffered 
from  many  causes,  but  the  chief  has  been  political 
unrest  and  internal  wars.  There  is  little  doubt  that 
if  the  country  once  settles  down,  as  it  now  bids  fair 
to  do,  and  a  feeling  of  security  is  established,'  the 
farmers  will  show  more  energy  and  increase  their 
knowledge  of  their  art,  and  in  time  the  physical 
conditions  of  the  vast  plains  may,  nay,  will,  be 
gradually  improved.  Irrigation  and  the  planting  of 
trees,  protecting  them  when  young  from  the  cattle, 
will  bring  this  about.  One  would  think  that  this 
process  should  be  begun  in  the  east  and  gradually 
worked  westward.  In  the  east  the  climate  is 
pleasanter,  and  the  prevailing  east  wind  cool  (not 
having  passed  over  a  hot,  arid  land  surface),  and 
as  each  strip  of  country  is  improved  it  would  render 
easier  the  amelioration  of  the  area  immediately  to 
the  west  of  it.  But  all  this  requires  capital,  work, 
and  patience,  and  men  will  not  be  found  to  under- 
take it  as  long  as  they  have  reason  to  fear  that  civil 
wars  will  prevent  them  enjoying  the  fruits  of  their 
labour. 

The  general  physical  description  of  the  llanos 
applies  to  all  the  States  named  in  the  heading  to  this 
chapter.  A  glance  at  the  map  shows  that  the  first 
six,  Monagas  to  Zamora,  actually  constitute  the  east 


RUINED    CHURCH  :     BARCELONA. 


I 


CASA    FUERTE  :     BARCELONA. 


To  face  page  lyS. 


THE    LLANOS  199 

to  west  extension  of  the  great  plain,  wliilst  Apure 
forms  the  beginning  of  the  southerly  extension,  which, 
as  already  pointed  out,  stretches  far  beyond  the 
boundaries   of  Venezuela. 

The  chief  towns  of  the  eastern  llanos  are  Maturin, 
in  Monagas,  Barcelona  and  Aragua  de  Barcelona,  in 
Anzoategui.  The  northern  part  of  these  two  States 
includes  some  of  the  highlands  south  of  the  Cumana 
range,  pleasant  pastoral  country  with  a  good  climate. 
The  central  part  of  the  llanos  is  very  hot,  and  arid 
in  the  dry  season.  Calabozo,  in  Gudrico,  and  San 
Fernando  de  Apure  are  the  two  hottest  places  in 
the  country,  the  latter  having  a  mean  annual 
temperature  of  91°. 

In  the  extreme  west,  as  the  Cordillera  is  ap- 
proached, the  heat  diminishes,  and  the  typical  llano 
is  often  replaced  by  well -wooded  country.  The  chief 
towns  here  are  San  Carlos,  in  Cojedes,  Guanare,  in 
Portuguesa,  and  Barinas,  in  Zamora,  the  last-named 
town  not  being  much  hotter  than  Maturin. 

The  to^vn  of  Nueva  Barcelona  was  founded  in 
1637  by  Juan  Urpin,  at  a  spot  some  two  leagues 
distant  from  its  present  site. 

In  1 67  I,  in  order  to  terminate  the  frequent  quarrels 
between  its  inhabitants  and  those  of  a  neighbouring 
settlement,  Cumanagoto,  the  Governor,  Angelo,  united 
the  two  populations  at  the  spot  where  Barcelona  now 
stands.  This  shifting  of  towns  and  villages  at  the 
order  of  a  Governor,  or  even  a  priest,  was  not  im- 
common  in  the  colony  in  the  early  days. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century 
Barcelona  grew  considerably  in  importance.  There 
was  a  large  and  growing  demand  in  the  Antilles, 
especially  in  Cuba,  for  meat  to  feed  the  slaves  ,on 
the  plantations  and  for  horses  and  mules.  The 
journey  from  the  River  Plate  in  sailing-ships  was 
a  very  long  one,  and  the  Cuba  merchants  preferred 
to  get  their  goods  from  the  north  coast.     Barcelona's 


200  VENEZUELA 

position  at  the  point  where  the  llanos  extend  right 
to  the  coast,  and  where  consequently  there  are  no 
mountains  to  cross,  gave  her  a  big  advantage  over 
Cumana  and  other  seaports,  and  her  trade  and 
population  grew  rapidly.  From  1790  to  1800  her 
population  grew  from  10,000  to  16,000.  But  it  was 
in  adversity  that  Barcelona  was  to  become  famous, 
and  in  1 8 1 7  she  gained  a  crown  of  martyrdom, 
becoming  the  scene  of  one  of  the  most  tragic  events 
in  the  history  of  South  American  independence. 

Bolivar,  after  several  encounters  with  the  royalists 
in  February,  had  left  Barcelona  to  beat  up  recruits. 
The  Captain -General,  Juan  de  Aldama,  having  failed 
to  intercept  him,  turned  eastward  to  the  doomed  city, 
where  he  was  joined  by  some  troops  from  Cumana 
and  by  some  vessels  of  the  fleet,  which  provided  him 
with  guns.  A  devoted  band,  consisting  chiefly  of 
Venezuelans,  with  some  Colombians  and  a  few 
foreigners,  in  all  600-700  fighting  men,  and  some 
300  civilians,  women,  and  children,  determined  to 
resist  to  the  last,  and  prepared  to  defend  the  convent 
of  San  Francisco,  better  known  to  history  as  the  Casa 
Fuerte,  which  stands  in  an  open  space  in  the  town. 

Aldama's  sharpshooters  having  cleared  the  town, 
he  invested  the  convent,  placing  ordnance  on  two 
sides  of  it  and  stationing  troops  on  the  far  sides 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  garrison.  He  then 
invited  the  patriots  to  capitulate,  promising  to  spare 
their  lives,  but  they  refused,  and  at  dawn  of 
April    loth  he   began   the   bombardment. 

The  Casa  Fuerte  was  not  strong  enough  to  with- 
stand his  artillery,  and  at  two  in  the  afternoon  a 
large  breach  had  been  e'Hected.  The  royalists 
charged  from  cover  across  the  open  space  round 
the  convent,  and  a  desperate  fight  ensued,  the 
Venezuelans  selling  their  lives  very  dearly.  The  walls 
of  the  room  in  which  the  last  of  the  patriots  died  are 
still  standing,  and  the  stones  are  deeply  scored  all 


THE    LLANOS  201 

over  from  the  blows  of  the  weapons  of  men  fighting 
in  a  confined  space. 

Aldama  states  in  his  official  report  to  the  King 
that  he  invited  the  garrison  to  capitulate  before  the 
bombardment,  with  a  view  to  avoiding  any  unneces- 
sary bloodshed  and  to  demonstrate  his  Majesty's 
clemency,  but  any  humane  intentions  seem  to  have 
deserted  the  royalists  during  the  day,  for,  not  con- 
tent with  annihilating  the  combatants,  who  disdained 
to  ask  for  quarter,  nearly  all  the  women  and  children 
were  outraged  and  murdered.  It  is  even  said  that 
Aldama  gave  orders  to  have  the  sick  in  the  hospital 
butchered,  but  the  ofiicer  to  whom  this  task  was 
deputed  would  not  carry  out  his  instructions.  A 
few  individuals  escaped,  fighting  as  they  went. 

The  military  and  civil  Governors  of  Barcelona, 
General  Pedro  Maria  Freites  and  Colonel  Francisco 
Esteban  Rivas,  were  taken  wounded  and  prisoners 
to  Caracas,  and  there  shot  on  April   17th. 

In  connection  with  the  centenary  celebrations  this 
year,  191 1,  an  interesting  little  booklet  has  been 
written  by  the  historian  M.  L.  Rosales,  and  officially 
published  by  the  President  of  Anzoategui,  General 
A.  Rolando,  giving  the  accounts  of  the  affair  by 
Aldama  on  the  one  hand  and  by  General  D.  F. 
O'Leary  on  the  other. 

Most  of  the  victims'  names  are  lost,  but  the 
historian  has  collected  some  seventy-seven,  six  of 
whom  were  priests  and  eighteen  women.  Among  them 
we  may  note  one  Carlos  Chamberlain,  of  Jamaica, 
a  colonel  in  the  Republican  Army,  and  his  mother. 
Dona  Eulalia.  Another  lady.  Dona  Juana  de  Jesus 
Rojas,  died  of  seven  bayonet  wounds,  while  the  last 
on  the  list  is  a  little  girl,  Dolores  Rodriguez,  only 
four  months  old,  who  had  a  hand  cut  off,  but  survived 
and  died  in  Caracas  as  lately  as  1898. 

Barcelona  is  a  town  of  good  appearance,  with 
fairly  well  paved  streets,  and  many  houses  of  more 


202  VENEZUELA 

than  one  storey,  which  show  that  there  is  not  the 
same  dread  of  earthquakes  as  at  Cumana.  There 
are  three  fine  churches  and  a  well-equipped 
theatre.  The  sea  near  the  town  is  shallow  and  has 
many  shoals  of  sand,  and  is  therefore  unsuited  to 
vessels  of  any  size.  Guanta,  some  19  kilometres 
to  the  east,  has  an  excellent  natural  harbour,  and 
is  now  the  port  of  Barcelona,  connected  with  the 
city  by  a  railway,  which  runs  also  to  the  coalmines 
at  Naricual  and  Capiricual,  another  19  kilometres 
distant.  These  furnish  a  useful  bright  burning  coal 
of  a  later  geological  period  than  the  British  coal 
which  is  used  on  the  railway  and  supplied  to  the 
Venezuelan  steamers  which  ply  from  the  Orinoco  to 
the  ports  on  the  north  coast.  Briquettes  are  also 
manufactured  with  the  coal  and  pitch  brought  from 
the  north-east  coast  and  Trinidad.  The  Barcelonians 
conduct  the  railway,  the  coalmine,  and  the  briquette 
factory  themselves,  and  are  rather  proud  of  their 
"  home  industries,"  since  in  Venezuela  most  modern 
enterprises   are  conducted  by  foreigners. 

The  imports  are  mixed  goods,  chiefly  from  the 
United  States  and  Holland,  while  the  exports  are 
mainly  beasts,  hides,  horns,  and  coffee. 

Aragua  de  Barcelona  is  better  placed  than  Bar- 
celona itself  as  a.  trade  centre,  and  is  growing  in 
importance,  becoming  a  serious  rival  to  the  older 
tovim.  It  is  chiefly  concerned  with  the  cattle  industry, 
but  the  inhabitants  also  make  hammocks  and  various 
textile  goods. 

Maturin,  the  capital  of  Monagas,  stands  in  the 
N.E.  comer  of  the  llanos,  on  the  River  Guarapiche, 
and  from  its  situation  it  is  likely,  to  grow  consider- 
ably in  importance  as  the  country  develops.  At  first 
sight  it  does  not  produce  a"  particularly  favourable 
impression.  The  streets  are  not  paved,  but  in  front 
of  the  houses  run  narrow  raised  sidewalks  often  two 
feet  or  more  above  the  roadway.     It  improves,  how- 


THE    LLANOS  203 

ever,  on  further  acquaintance.  There  is  not  the  air 
of  decay  and  diminished  importance  which  is  badly 
evident  in  some  parts  of  the  country  ;  the  inhabi- 
tants are  cheerful  and  sociable,  and  inclined  to  jpro- 
gress,  and  a  fair  amount  of  business  appears  to  pass 
through  the  town. 

There  is  probably  no  part  of  the  llanos  pleasanter 
than  the  country  round  Maturin.  The  grassy  plain 
is  well  supplied  with  streams,  which  have  generally 
cut  their  channels  fairly  deep,  and  are  well  wooded 
along  their  banks,  and  the  climate  is  pleasant  even 
for  Europeans. 

The  death-rate,  although  there  is  no  sanitation, 
is  very  low,  under  12  per  1,000,  or  less  than  half 
the  average  rate  for  the  republic,  and  lower  than 
that  ,of  London. 

Most  of  the  trade  of  this  part  of  the  country 
is  carried  by  schooners,  which  come  from  the  sea 
up  the  Cafio  San  Juan,  to  the  point  where  the  Rivers 
San  Juan  and  Guarapiche  join.  Here  there  is  an 
old  guardship,  where  some  Customs  officials  are 
stationed.  The  San  Juan  leads  to  Guanoco,  where  the 
Bermudez  Asphalt  Company  carry  on  their  business. 
A  few  miles  up  the  Guarapiche  stands  the  village  of 
Cano  Colorado,  the  headquarters  of  the  Customs.  The 
jungle  is  dense  on  both  banks  of  the  river,  but  on 
one  side  a  narrow  clearing  has  been  made,  just 
sufficient  for  a  row  of  small  houses,  with  a  little 
back  garden  to  each.  Maturin  is  about  thirty  miles 
from  here  across  country,  but  much  farther  by  river. 
From  the  point  at  which  the  schooners  stop  the 
trade  with  Maturin  is  carried  in  bongos,  which  are 
propelled,  like  punts,  by,  long  poles.  Planks  are 
fixed  on  the  two  sides  of  the  boats,  and  the  crews, 
standing  on  these,  plant  their  poles  firmly,  and  then 
walk  towards  the  stern.  When  they  can  go  no 
farther,  they  pull  out  the  poles  and  run  towards 
the  bows.     The  river  is  narrow  and  very  swift,  so 


204  VENEZUELA 

that  coming  down  stream  is  very  easy,  but  going  up 
so  much  way  is  lost  between  the  strokes,  that  the 
men,  when  they  pull  up  their  poles,  have  to  rush 
forward  again  as  fast  as  they  can.  It  takes  three 
days  to  get  from  Carlo  Colorado  up  to  Maturin  like 
this,  and  the  men  are  able  to  work  almost  continually 
during  the  day.  Once  out  of  sight  of  the  houses,  they 
generally  strip  completely,  only  throwing  on  some 
light  covering  on  reaching  one  of  the  few  settlements 
on  the  river.  The  exercise  develops  every  muscle 
of  the  body  and  limbs,  and  the  men  engaged  in  it 
are  as  fine  a  set  of  athletes  as  any  artist  or  anatomist 
could  wish  to  see.  Although  the  river  is  so  wild, 
and  human  habitations  so  few  and  far  apart,  this 
scene  is  quite  lively  at  intervals  as  groups  of  these 
bongos  come  along,  and  "  man  overboard,"  a  fre- 
quent event,  is  always  the  cause  of  much  merriment. 
The  country  round  Maturin  is  dotted  here  and 
there  with  villages,  as  well  as  with  isolated  cottages. 
The  larger  cattle-owners  often  live  in  the  towns 
but  have  here  and  there  small  houses  for  their  em- 
ployees. A  typical  casita  is  simplicity  itself.  Up- 
right posts,  tree-trunks  with  their  branches  trimmed 
off,  are  planted  firmly  in  the  ground,  six  feet  or  more 
apart,  and  cross-pieces  are  tied  to  them,  at  a  height 
of  about  eight  feet.  The  rafters  of  the  roof,  lighter 
poles,  are  also  tied  on,  and  palm-leaves  form  a  most 
efficient  thatch,  throwing  off  the  heaviest  rain,  and 
lasting  for  years.  At  one  end  of  this  roofed 
enclosure  a  small  space  is  rendered  more  private, 
to  serve  as  the  retiring-r'oom  of  the  inhabitants.  A 
few  light  trunks  or  branches  are  tied  horizontally, 
across  the  uprights,  abput  a  foot  apart,  and  either 
palm-leaves  are  tied  to  these,  the  bedroom  walls, 
in  fact,  being  thatched  like  the  roof,  or  a  more  solid 
mud  wall  is  constructed  on  the  wooden  framework. 
The  soil  itself  is  the  floor.  The  traveller  seeking 
a  night's  shelter  slings  his  hammock  to  some  of  the 


THE    LLANOS  205 

uprights  in  the  outer  room,  having  no  walls  around 
him,  but  a  roof  over  his  head.  A  small  fire  is  kept 
going  in  a  corner  of  the  outer  room  for  cooking 
purposes.  In  the  simpler  cases  very  little  furniture 
is  required  :  a  log  or  two  to  sit  on  ;  a  few  bowls 
of  different  sizes  made  of  gourds  cut  in  half,  serving 
as  cups  or  plates  ;  an  iron  pot  on  the  fire  ;  an 
upright  log,  stuck  in  the  ground  with  a  bowl-shaped 
hollow  at  the  top  serves  as  a  sort  of  mortar,  in 
which  maize,  &^c.,  may  be  ground  ;  and  another  some- 
what similar  device,  with  a  wooden  lever  for  crushing 
sugar-cane,  the  juice  running  out  below  into  the 
gourd  placed  to  receive  it. 

It  is  easy  to  set  up  a  home  of  this  sort  ;  the 
site  once  selected,  the  materials  for  house  and  furni- 
ture are  always  at  hand,  and  the  whole  thing  can 
be  done  in  a  few  days. 

The  traveller,  of  course,  always  carries  his  own 
hammock,  rolled  up  tight  in  a  sausage-shaped  bag 
carried  across  the  saddle,  either  before  or  behind 
the  rider.  On  arrival  at  one  of  these  homesteads 
he  can  almost  invariably  count  on  a  civil  reception, 
and  without  further  preliminaries  slings  his  ham- 
mock, which  then  serves  him  as  chair  as  well  as  bed. 
Sometimes  he  may  chance  on  a  spot  where  food 
is  scarce  at  the  moment,  but  generally  the  good 
people  will  find  something  for  him.  A  sancoche 
made  of  a  fowl  stewed  in  its  own  juices,  cassava 
in  thin  cakes,  sprinkled  with  a  ifew  drops  of 
water  to  soften  it,  some  beans,  and  some  roast 
plantains  (cooking  bananas)  form  a  menu  which, 
even  if  it  does  not  appeal  to  an  epicure,  proves 
both  tasty  and  satisfying  after  a  long  day  in  the 
saddle.  Houses  of  this  type  are  generally  inhabited 
by  one  family  only,  who  are  looking  after  the  flocks 
and  herds  of  some  wealthy  owner  or  are  in  a  very 
small  way  of  business  themselves. 

A  more  animated  scene  is  presented  by  the  hato 


206  VENEZUELA 

of  a  regular  farmer,  a  proprietor  living  on  the 
premises,  employing  several  hands  and  working  with 
them.  Here  we  may  expect  to  see  a  solid  house 
of  several  rooms,  with  mud  walls  and  an  earth  floor. 
If  the  farmer  is  a  person  of  substance  and  taste, 
his  bedroom  may  be  furnished  with  an  up-to-date 
bedstead,  and  a  wardrobe  or  chest  of  drawers,  and 
a.  few  chairs,  while  the  chief  living-room  probably 
has  a  rough  table  and  a  few  chairs  also.  In  the 
living-rooms  the  mud  or  clay  of  the  walls  is  broken 
here  and  there  about  six  feet  above  the  ground, 
giving  glimpses  of  the  wooden  framework  inside  the 
wall.  This  is,  however,  not  due  to  accidental  damage 
or  neglect,  for  at  night  strangers,  or  some  of  the 
farm  hands,  sleep  in  these  living-rooms,  and  passing 
their  hammock-ropes  through  these  holes,  attach 
them  to  the  wooden  posts  inside. 

Round  about  the  house,  or  near  it,  is  an  enclosed 
stockyard,  built,  like  the  houses,  of  upright  posts, 
with  horizontal  poles  attached  to  them.  In  the 
middle  of  this  yard  is  an  upright  post,  to  which  the 
beasts  requiring  any  sort  of  operation  are  secured 
one  at  a  time.  There  are,  perhaps,  other  similar 
enclosures,  some  covered  with  palm  thatch,  in  which 
any  part  of  the  stock  may  be  kept  separate  if  desired. 
These  yards  are  also  used  at  times  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  travelling  herds,  especially  if  the  farm  be 
on  or  near  the  recognised  route  to  some  market 
town  or  port.  The  drovers  pay  the  farmer  a  small 
rental,  generally  based  on  the  number  of  cattle  they 
have,  and  secure  them  for  the  night,  thus  preventing 
them  from  straying  about  the  plains  and  ensuring 
an  early  start  in  the  morning. 

Near  the  house,  in  a  roofed  shed,  is  the  bakery  ; 
there  we  may  find  a  small  fireplace  with  clay  walls, 
the  top  of  which  is  formed  by  a  circular  iron  plate 
about  three  feet  in  diameter,  the  whole  being  about 
the  height  of  an  ordinary  table.     On  this  the  cassava- 


THE    LLANOS  207 

bread  is  baked.  The  flour,  duly  prepared  and  freed 
from  superfluous  water,  is  thinly  spread  on  the  iron 
and  rapidly  baked,  the  finished  loaf  being  a  large 
circular  disc  very  hard  and  brittle,  and  thinner  than 
our  ordinary  milk  biscuits. 

The  cattle  may  be  seen  dotted  about  the  plain, 
and  near  to  the  homesteads  a  few  horses  are  grazing, 
tethered  so  that  they  may  be  at  hand  when  wanted. 
There  is  none  of  the  continuous  work,  laborious  culti- 
vation of  the  soil,  constant  attention  to  the  live  stock, 
&c.,  which  we  are  accustomed  to  connect  with  farm- 
ing at  home.  The  farm  hands  spend  a  good  deal  of 
their  time  loafing  about,  chatting,  smoking,  and  play- 
ing their  guitars  and  maracas.  At  other  times  there 
is  plenty  of  bustle  and  activity  ;  they  rush  for  their 
horses  and  gallop  off  to  collect  the  cattle,  or  such 
of  them  as  may  be  required,  and  drive  them  into 
the  enclosure,  where  they  are  lassooed  one  at  a  time, 
and  milked,  or  fastened  to  the  post  in  the  middle  to 
be  branded,  or  have  hurts  attended  to,  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  amount  of  comfort  to  be  found  in 
these  farms,  and  the  amount  of  skill  and  energy  dis- 
played in  their  exploitation  varies  a  good  deal  from 
place  to  place,  depending  mainly,  after  all,  on  the 
tastes  and  character  of  the  owner,  but  partly  on 
circumstances.  In  many  cases  absolute  slackness  and 
indifference  prevail,  the  cattle  are  almost  entirely 
left  to  shift  for  themselves,  and  the  human  beings 
are  content  to  exist  miserably  rather  than  bestir  them- 
selves. There  are  some  estates,  again,  where  the 
owner  is  a  wealthy,  educated,  and  perhaps  a  travelled 
man,  which  are  managed  on  far  better  lines  than 
the  average. 

Maturin  has  a  creditable  record  from  the  War  of 
Independence,  a  Spanish  army  having  been  twice 
repulsed,  and  finally  almost  completely  destroyed 
there.  At  Areo,  a  day  and  a  half  west  of  Maturin, 
there   is   in   the   open   space   by  the   church   a   huge 


208  VENEZUELA 

wooden  screw  press,  like  a  giant  letterpress,  which 
the  inhabitants  say  was  used  by  the  Spaniards  to 
press  cotton.  At  Urica,  farther  west,  the  in- 
habitants are  somewhat  interesting.  They  have  the 
reputation  of  having  been  of  a  brave  and  warlike 
disposition  from  the  earliest  times,  and  fought  des- 
perately in  the  War  of  Independence.  There  is  some- 
thing in  their  appearance,  and  a  general  suggestion 
of  freedom  and  independence  in  their  manner,  in 
their  very  gait,  which  can  scarcely  fail  to  strike 
the  traveller,  even  if  he  be  unacquainted  with  their 
history. 

At  the  little  village  of  Curataquiche,  near  Barce- 
lona, are  the  ruins  of  the  Mission  of  St.  Joseph  ; 
the  walls  of  one  end  of  the  church,  and  a  bit  of  the 
adjoining  enclosure,  very  solidly  built  in  stone,  are 
all  that  remain  of  a  once  important  mission.  The 
church  bells  have  been  preserved,  and  are  hung  to 
a  large  wooden  trestle  on  the  village  green. 

Most  of  these  towns  and  villages  possess  churches, 
but  resident  priests  are  rarely  to  be  found.  The 
inhabitants  generally  meet  on  Sundays  and  hold  some 
sort  of  service  among  themselves,  but  can  only  hear 
Mass  when  a  travelling  priest  comes  their  way.  At 
either  end  of  a  village,  at  the  side  of  the  track,  a 
plain  wooden  cross  is  generally  erected,  and  often 
in  its  neighbourhood  will  be  found  a  small  shrine 
about  which  are  hung  various  little  objects  placed 
there  by  pious  hands  as  thankofferings  for  answers 
to  prayers.  These  shrines  generally  contain  a  cross 
with  the  instruments  of  crucifixion,  the  ladder,  nails, 
hammer,  crown  of  thorns,  spear  shaft  with  sponge, 
dice,  &c.,  but  without  the  figure  of  Christ.  They 
are  often  illuminated  with  a  little  flickering  light  at 
night.  To  the  west  of  Barcelona  there  is  one  on 
the  spot  where  a  man  was  killed.  It  contains  his 
skull,  which  is  lit  up  from  inside  at  night,  producing 
a  somewhat  weird  effect. 


MESA   OF   ESNOJAQUE  :    TRUJILLO. 


MERIDA  :     LOOKING   SOUTH    FROM    UNIVERSITY. 


To  face  pace  208. 


THE    LLANOS  209 

Calabozo,  the  chief  town  in  the  State  of  Guarico, 
and  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  founded  in  1730  by, 
the  Guipuzcoana  Company,  is  a  town  of  some  import- 
ance to-day.  There  is  a  good  grazing  country  round 
it,  and  it  has  a  trade  in  cattle,  mules,  hides,  cheese, 
and  other  things.  It  is  a  hot  place,  but  has  not 
the  reputation  of  being  unhealthy.  Its  communi- 
cations are  liable  to  be  cut  off  by  floods  in  the  wet 
season.  It  has  always  been  specially  noted  in  the 
records  of  travellers  for  the  electric  eels  which 
abound  in  its  neighbourhood.  Humboldt,  when  visit- 
ing Calabozo,  offered  a  fair  price  for  a  number  of 
these  creatures.  Horses  were  cheap  at  that  time, 
and  some  of  the  inhabitants  obtained  the  desired 
specimens  by  driving  a  number  of  horses  into  a  pond 
infested  with  them,  and  prevented  their  escape  by 
surrounding  the  pond  armed  with  sticks.  .When  the 
gymnoti  had  exhausted  their  energies  on  the  unfortu- 
nate horses,  they  were  able  to  secure  them  without 
risk.  Several  of  the  horses  died,  either  directly  from 
the  attacks  of  the  eels  or,  more  probably,  from 
drowning  during  the  temporary  paralysis  caused  by 
the  electric  shocks. 

Among  the  other  principal  towns  in  Guarico  is 
Barbacoas,  pleasantly  situated  in  a  raised  plain  east 
of  the  Guarico,  with  woods  to  the  north  of  it  and  a 
fertile  plain  to  the  south. 

At  Ortiz,  founded  by  the  cacique  of  that  name, 
Bolivar  was  nearly  killed  on  April  16,  18 18.  This 
town  and  Guayabal,  which  was  founded  by  the 
Capuchins  in  1758,  were  both  burnt  by  the  Spaniards 
during  the  war. 

Zaraza,  on  the  River  Unare,  and  Camaguan,  on  the 
Portuguesa,  are  also  of  some  importance  ;  the  latter 
was  built  by  the  Capuchins  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  Inundations  from  the  Portuguesa,  the 
Apure,  and  the  Apurito  have  formed  a  considerable 
lake  near  Camaguan,  which  appears  to  be  permanent. 
14 


210  VENEZUELA 

the  Rivers  Unare  and  Apurito  are  navigable  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  these  towns  in  the  wet  season. 

In  the  State  of  Cojedes,  the  town  of  San  Carlos 
was  formerly  a  flourishing  place,  but  has  now  a 
very  reduced  population,  and  many  formerly  fine 
buildings  are  going  into  decay.  The  same  sad  state 
of  things  obtains  at  Barinas,  on  the  River  San 
Domingo,  in  the  State  of  Zamora  ;  its  neighbour- 
hood was  formerly  a  famous  tobacco  district. 
Barinas  is  at  the  extremity  in  this  direction  of  the 
telegraph  service  of  Venezuela.  Near  it,  at  Pedraza, 
are  some  ruins,  traces  of  an  earlier  Indian  civilisation. 

In  the  State  of  Portuguesa  the  chief  town  is 
Guanare,  founded  in  1593  by  Francisco  de  Leon. 
Besides  the  usual  cattle  and  live-stock  industries, 
coffee  and  cocoa  are   grown   in   the  neighbourhood. 

The  western  part  of  the  country  was  settled  by  the 
Spaniards  earlier  than  the  east,  but  about  the  towns 
of  the  western  llanos  there  appears  to  be  a  melan- 
choly air  of  past  prosperity  and  of  arrested  develop- 
ment. They  have  suffered  much  from  wars  and 
political  troubles,  also  from  cattle  plagues.  Their 
inhabitants  now  depend  chiefly  on  their  cattle,  mules, 
hides,  &c.  ;  in  some  places  coffee,  cocoa,  and  tobacco 
are  grown,  and  there  are  a  few  simple  manufactures, 
hammocks,  straw  hats,  earthenware  goods,  sugar, 
cheese,  &c.,  being  the  chief. 

Nevertheless,  the  western  llanos  undoubtedly 
possess  great  resources  and  convenient  outlets.  To 
the  north  they  can  communicate  with  Barquisimeto, 
Puerto  Cabello,  and  other  towns,  whilst  the  streams 
on  which  they  are  situated  are  all  tributaries  of 
the  Orinoco,  or  of  its  main  feeders,  thus  putting  them 
into  communication  with  Ciudad  Bolivar.  If  good 
government  continues,  and  capital  is  attracted,  there 
must  come  to  this  great  territory  a  degree  of  pros- 
perity far  greater  than  it  has  enjoyed  in  the  past,  or 
than  its  present  inhabitants  probably  even  dream  of. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

THE   CITY   AND   STATE   OF   BOLIVAR 

An  enormous  area — How  to  reach  it — Ciudad  Bolivar — Climate — 
San  Felix— Falls  of  the  Caroni— Trade  of  San  Felix— Quality  of 
"roads" — Upata — Guasipati — Balata  industry — Extravagant  ex- 
ploitation— Former  importance — The  goldfields — El  Callao — 
The  discovery — Callao  Bis — Big  dividends — The  common  pur- 
suit— Venamo  Valley — High  freights— Poor  quality  of  labour — 
Unsystematic  working — Goldfields  of  Venezuela,  Ltd.— Savan- 
nahs— Stock-farming — Sugar — Old  settlements— An  ancient 
bridge — Tumeremo  and  the  balata  forests — Killing  the  goose 
that  lays  the  golden  eggs — The  Caroni — An  opportunity  for 
a  pioneer — Up  the  Orinoco — The  "  Gates  of  Hell  " — The  Caura 
— Rice  and  tonka-beans — Lajas — Rubber  of  the  Nichare — 
Falls  of  Para — Andre's  journeys — Mountains  of  the  upper 
Caura — The  W^aiomgomos — Reticence  regarding  names — Ticks 
— Caicara  —  The  Cuchivero  —  Savannahs  and  sarrapiales — 
Sarsaparilla — Climate  of  the  Orinoco  Valley. 

Less  than  two  miles  up-stream  from  the  ancient 
citadel  of  Guayana  Vieja,  the  boundary  of  the  Delta 
territory  crosses  the  Orinoco,  and  the  right  bank  of 
the  river  becomes  the  northern  limit  of  the  State 
of  Bolivar  under  the  Constitution  of  1909.  This 
State  includes  a  vast  unexplored  region,  in  addition 
to  the  gold-producing  district  bordering  on  British 
Guiana,  and  occupies  in  all  238,000  square  kilo- 
metres, or  90,440  square  miles,  mainly  covered  with 
virgin  forest. 

The  capital  of  this  huge  State  is  the  city  of  Angos- 
tura, named  in    1846  Ciudad  Bolivar,   in  honour  of 


212  VENEZUELA 

the  Libcrtador.  Its  intercourse  with  the  outside 
world  is  carried  on  solely  through  Port-of-Spain, 
in  Trinidad,  from  which  shallow-draught  river 
steamers  run  over  in  about  two  days,  once  a  week 
in  the  busy  season,  when  the  rubber,  balata,  and 
other  forest  products  from  the  interior  are  being 
exported  in  largest  quantities,  and  once  every  ten 
days  at  other  times  ;  from  the  city  smaller  steamers 
ply  up  the  Orinoco  and  the  Apure  to  the  borders  of 
Colombia. 

Founded  in  1764  by  the  then  Governor  of  the 
Orinoco  province,  Don  Joaquin  Moreno  de  Mendoza, 
on  the  slope  of  a  granite  hill  overlooking  the  river, 
the  new  city  received  the  name  of  San  Thome  de  la 
Nueva  Guayana,  as  opposed  to  Guayana  Vieja  down 
the  river.  Later  the  name  changed,  naturally,  to 
Angostura,  from  the  fact  that  the  river  at  this  point 
narrows  down  to  800  metres,  a  physical  feature  which 
accentuates  the  rise  of  the  Orinoco  to  such  an  extent 
that  in  the  rains  the  water-level  rises  some  40  feet, 
flooding  the  lower  parts  of  the  city.  There  is  a 
gradual  descent  from  the  fort  and  cathedral  behind 
the  town,  with  the  cemetery  again  behind  them,  to 
the  waterside,  where  there  is  a  good  road  along  the 
river-front,  having  the  principal  private  houses  and 
the  large  stores,  many  of  which  are  owned  by  German 
firms  ;  elsewhere  there  are  scattered  mansions  dating 
back  to  colonial  times,  with  massive  walls  as  pro- 
tection from  the  heat.  The  granite  on  which  the 
city  is  built  seems  to  absorb  the  heat  throughout 
the  day,  and  the  radiation  after  sunset  renders  the 
atmosphere  unusually  oppressive  for  a  town  in  so 
fine  a  position.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
is   86-6°  F. 

Ciudad  Bolivar  is  the  official  port  of  entry,  not 
only  for  the  hinterland  of  Guayana  but  also  for  the 
eastern  gold-mining  region,  the  port  of  which  is 
in  reality  passed  on  the  way  up  the  river,   and   is 


CITY    AND    STATE    OF    BOLIVAR    213 

known  as  San  Felix  or  Puerto  Tablas,  a  few  miles 
eastward  of  the  mouth  and  falls  of  the  Caroni.  A 
special  permit  is  occasionally  granted  for  passengers 
to  land  at  this  point  without  first  visiting  Bolivar, 
but  normally  all  passengers  and  goods  perform  the 
eight-hours  journey  between  San  Felix  and  Bolivar 
twice  over,  in  order  to  pass  through  the  custom- 
house at  the  latter. 

The  falls  of  Caroni,  near  Las  Tablas,  have  been 
made  famous  by  many  travellers  since  the  days  of 
Raleigh,  who  was  struck  with  the  magnificent  spec- 
tacle of  their  huge  body  of  water  descending  a  sheer 
60  feet  over  black  polished  granite  to  join  the  greater 
river  of  which  it  is  a  tributary,  after  its  hundreds 
of  miles  of  comparatively  quiet  travel  from  the  slopes 
of  the  Sierra  Pacaraima,  on  the  borders  of  Brazil. 
East  of  Caroni  lie  the  two  most  populous  districts 
of  Bolivar,  those  of  Piar  and  Roscio,  containing 
numerous  towns  and  fairly  well  provided  with  roads. 
The  district  of  Heres  has  in  the  aggregate  a  larger 
population  than  either  of  the  more  easterly  divisions, 
but  over  two-thirds  of  the  whole  of  this  is  accounted 
for  by  the  congregation  of  souls  in  the  capital,  so 
that  from  a  general  point  of  view  the  goldfield  area 
is  the  most  densely  populated  of  all,  and  included 
22,392  of  the  total  of  55,744  in  the  State  at  the 
census  of    1891. 

San  Felix  receives  its  second  name  of  Las  Tablas 
from  the  elevated  plateau  behind  the  town,  over  which 
the  road  climbs  to  the  interior.  It  is  a  busy  little 
town,  though  small,  with  an  hotel,  a  few  stores, 
telegraph  office,  and  custom-house  ;  the  last  is  rather 
a  coastguard-station,  as  we  have  seen  that  all  duties 
are  collected  in  Bolivar.  There  is  a  British  consular 
agent  in  the  port.  With  the  enormous  possibilities 
of  the  water-power  present  in  the  Caroni  falls,  it 
seems  strange  that  the  place  has  not  developed  ere 
this  into  a  flourishing  and  important  city,  instead  of 


214  VENEZUELA 

the  small  terminus  town  that  it  remains.  As  it  is, 
the  size  of  the  place  is  no  criterion  of  its  commercial 
standing,  for  all  the  imports  and  exports  of  the  two 
eastern  districts  pass  through  San  Felix,  and  the 
freight  paid  there  amounts  alone  to  £200,000 
annually.  Merchandise  proceeds  southwards  on  ox- 
wagons  and  mule -carts,  which  carry  in  cotton  goods 
and  hardware  and  bring  back  balata  and  hides,  with 
the  small  amount  of  gold  at  present  produced.  The 
2 1  5  kilometres  to  Guasipati  may  take  any  time  from 
ten  days  to  two  months  for  the  wheel  traffic,  accord- 
ing to  the  kind  used  and  the  season  of  the  year,  for 
the  "  road  "  is  exceedingly  primitive.  Bridges  are 
rare,  and  the  route  is  a  mere  track  cut  through  the 
forest  or  winding  over  sandy  plains,  without  any 
attempts  at  surveying,  metalling,  or  draining,  so  that 
deep  mud-holes  are  frequently  formed,  wherein  the 
wagons  may  stick  for  two  or  three  days  before  they 
are  hauled  out  with  block  and  tackle.  In  these  cir- 
cumstances it  is  not  surprising  that  the  ordinary 
traveller  hires  a  mule  for  the  journey  from  San  Felix, 
and  so  covers  the  distance  to  Guasipati  in  about 
twenty-five  hours'   actual   riding. 

The  road  to  Guasipati  passes  through  Upata,  the 
capital  of  the  Piar  district,  which  is  about  ten  and 
a  half  hours  distant  from  Las  Tablas.  After  one 
and  a  half  hours  across  sandy,  open  ground,  with 
stunted  trees,  the  edge  of  the  forest  is  reached,  and 
the  road  continues  through  this  for  some  seven  hours 
more,  beyond  which  two  hours'  riding  across  open 
savannah  is  required  to  reach  Upata.  This  is  a 
small  agricultural  town  with  a  population  of  less 
than  3,000,  forming  a  market  for  the  neighbouring 
villages  and  haciendas,  and  possessing  a  hotel,  tele- 
graph office,  and  a  few  shops. 

After  Upata  the  main  road  to  Guasipati  crosses  the 
Orinoco-Cuyuni  watershed,  and  winding  all  the  way 
across  open   savannahs   on  which   are  grazing   large 


CITY    AND    STATE    OF    BOTJVAR     215 

herds  of  cattle,  with  villages  here  and  there,  finally 
enters  the  capital  of  the  Roscio  district,  about  fifteen 
hours'  continuous  riding  from  Upata.  Needless  to 
say,  the  journey  from  San  Felix  is  not  necessarily  one 
of  two  long  stages,  and  those  who  do  not  mind 
putting  up  with  the  discomforts  of  small  posadas 
may   take    four    or    five    days    over    the    journey. 

In  1 89 1  Guasipati  had  a  population  of  over  3,000, 
and  was  then  and  subsequently  the  centre  of  the 
balata  industry,  large  quantities  of  the  gum  being 
obtained  from  the  neighbouring  forests.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  local  operators  adopted  the  extravagant 
and  lazy  habit  of  cutting  down  the  trees  in  place  of 
tapping  them,  and  the  source  of  supply  has  conse- 
quently retreated  into  the  forests  away  from  the  town. 
For  this  and  other  reasons,  notably  the  decreased 
activity  in  the  goldfields,  Guasipati  has  of  late  years 
decreased  in  size,  but  it  is  still  the  district  capital, 
with  the  chief  courts  and  registry  offices,  and 
possesses  a  fine  plaza  and  church,  hotel,  telegraph 
office,  and  numerous  stores. 

While  the  botanical  and  zoological  resources  of 
the  region  have  proved,  as  is  usual,  more  satisfactory 
in  the  long  run  than  mineral  wealth,  the  principal 
attraction  and  chief  source  of  revenue  was  originally, 
and  to  some  extent  still  is,  the  gold  of  the  El  Callao 
region  to  the  south  of  Guasipati.  The  town  of  that 
name  lies  some  twenty-five  kilometres,  or  three  hours' 
ride,  from  Guasipati,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  River 
Yuruari.  The  town  is  built  on  and  around  the  site 
of  the  famous  mine  of  the  same  name,  which  is  said 
to  have  been  worked  by  Indians  in  very  early  times. 
The  hills  above  the  town  are  covered  with  dense 
tropical  vegetation,  the  second  growth  which  has 
replaced  the  former  forests,  whose  trees  supplied  the 
fuel  used  in  working  the  mines.  The  commencement 
of  recent  work  and  the  discovery  of  the  various 
alluvial  and  reef  deposits  is  attributed  to  more  than 


216 


VENEZUELA 


one  source,  but  the  most  probable  story  is  that  which 
follows  : — 

The  Spanish  monks  had  a  station  at  Tupuquen,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river  some  four  miles  above 
El  Callao,  and  prospectors  from  this  settlement  fol- 
lowed up  the  rich  alluvial  valley  of  a  small  tributary 
known  as  the  Mocupia,  founding  there  the  settlement 
of  Caratal,  where  there  are  still  many  prospecting 
shafts  working  free  gold  from  a  depth  of  about 
20  feet,  with  the  ruins  of  various  mills  erected  at  a 
later  date,  during  the  boom  of  the  early  eighties, 
including  that  of  the  notorious  Callao  Bis.  From 
Caratal  the  prospectors  spread  over  the  surrounding 
country  and  found  numerous  rich  deposits,  the  chief 
being  El  Callao,  about  two  miles  from  Caratal.  In 
1842  a  Brazilian  named  Pedro  Ayares  visited  Tupu- 
quen, and  recorded  the  existence  of  auriferous  sands 
in  the  river,  but  primitive  washings  were  not  estab- 
lished there  till  1849,  when  good  returns  were 
obtained.  After  many  years  of  prospecting  and 
handwork  the  El  Callao  company  was  formed,  and 
a  mill  was  erected,  yielding  the  following  results  :— 


Year. 

Tons  crushed. 

Gold  produced. 

.Average  per  Ton. 

Oz. 

Oz. 

1871 

315 

3,2I9'6o 

6-25 

1874 

3,963 

17,187-68 

4"33 

1876 

12,419 

42,542-05 

3-42 

1878 

9-673 

49,638-88 

5-13 

1881 

24,978 

72,254-62 

2-89 

1884 

30,936 

i77,o55"i6 

5-72 

1886 

73,708 

118,040-20 

2-45 

1889 

57,301 

52,97i'35 

0-91 

1892 

52,910 

31,945-27 

o-6o 

paying  in  dividends,  from  1871  to  1892,  48,332,200 
francs,  or  £1,933,288.  Since  that  time  little  of 
importance  has  been  done,  and  at  the  present  time 
the  mine  is  practically  shut  down,  after  having  been 
involved  in  endless  lawsuits. 


CITY    AND    STATE    OF    BOLIVAR    217 

That  there  is  good  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
region  contains  vast  mineral  wealth  can  hardly  be 
denied,  in  view  of  the  widespread  indications  of  gold, 
so  general  that  it  is  almost  a  daily  occurrence  to 
see  men,  women,  and  boys  setting  out  with  pan, 
pick,  and  shovel,  carried  on  a  donkey's  back,  to  try 
their  fortune  at  some  fresh  alluvial  discovery.  A 
big  rush  of  men  took  place  to  the  Venamo  Valley,  on 
the  borders  of  Guiana,  in  December  of  last  year, 
and  the  field  there  is  now  being  opened  up,  some 
sixty  or  seventy  miles  southward  of  Callao,  and  acces- 
sible by  water  only.  One  of  the  chief  drawbacks  to 
development  of  any  part  of  the  district  is  the  high 
cost  of  transport— the  freight  from  San  Felix  by 
ox-cart  is  9  cents  per  lb.,  or  over  £30  per  ton — and 
this  is  followed  by  a  scarcity  of  labour,  which  is 
almost  entirely  derived  from  West  Indian  coloured 
settlers  and  immigrants,  often  of  a  very  low  type, 
so  that  it  is  necessary  to  pay  B6.00  per  day  for  the 
lowest  class  of  unintelligent  manual  labour,  and  up 
to  B  1 6.00  for  skilled  {i.e.,  indifferent  fitters')  work. 
These  difficulties  may,  and  doubtless  will,  be  over- 
come in  time  ;  but  the  country  moves  forward  slowly, 
if  at  all,  and  the  early  attempts  at  working  the  mines 
appear  to  have  been  too  careless  and  unsystematic 
to  offer  much  encouragement  to  immigration  of  a 
good  class  of  settler.  Mills  were  put  up  on  any  rich 
strike,  and  when  that  was  worked  out  the  company 
died,  without  any  attempt  to  find  any  other  sources 
of  ore.  Among  many  companies  that  have  been  thus 
floated  from  time  to  time  may  be  mentioned  the 
Nacupai,  Chili,  Potosi,  Union,  Victory,  and  Choco. 
Practically  the  only  mine  now  worked  regularly  is 
the  Goldfields  of  Venezuela,  which  has  .absorbed  many 
of  the  old  companies  and  employs  modern  methods 
under  the  direction  of  a  superintendent  of  many 
years'  experience  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  country. 

Outside  the  forest-clad  hills  of  the  auriferous  terri- 


218  VENEZUELA 

tory  there  are  immense  stretches  of  savannah,  which 
are  divided  up  into  ranches,  and  have  been  found 
excellent  for  cattle-breeding,  though  as  yet  the  horses 
raised  there  are  of  very  indifferent  quality  ;  the 
stocks  are  small,  however,  and  much  extension  is 
possible  in  the  industry,  which  is  hardly  so  important 
at  the  present  time  as  the  cultivation  of  sugar.  Many 
plantations  and  mills  are  to  be  found  in  the  eastern 
districts  of  Bolivar,  and  the  large  quantities  of  rum 
and  papelon  (raw  sugar)  produced  give  a  good 
return,  the  local  demand  for  these  commodities  being 
considerable. 

There  are  still  some  ruins,  and  in  some  cases 
modern  villages,  to  mark  the  sites  of  the  old  Spanish 
settlements,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  Tupu- 
quen,  Carapo,  Sicapra,  and  Cura  ;  the  last  named 
must  once  have  been  a  place  of  considerable  im- 
portance, as  near  by  are  traces  of  a  bridge  over  the 
Yuruari,  the  only  one  on  record,  and  of  a  brick  and 
tile  factory.  It  is  said  to  have  been  the  port  for 
small  trading  boats  coming  up  the  Essequibo  and 
the  Cuyuni  from  Dutch  Guiana  ;  the  old  Dutch  bells 
found  near  by  are  adduced  as  evidence  in  support 
of  this  statement.  The  place  is  now  entirely 
abandoned  and  in  ruins. 

Some  six  hours'  ride  south  of  El  Callao  is  the 
town  of  Tumeremo,  which  is  rapidly  coming  to  the 
fore  as  the  centre  of  the  balata  industry.  At  present 
it  is  near  the  forests,  which  are  of  enormous  extent  ; 
but  the  system  of  wholesale  destruction  of  the  trees 
still  prevails,  and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the  history 
of  Guasipati  will  be  repeated  here,  and  that  the 
industry  will  perish  by  a  suicide's  death  at  no  very 
distant  date. 

Famous  as  are  the  falls  of  the  Caroni,  the  upper 
course  and  tributaries  of  this  great  river  are  prac- 
tically unknown.  For  some  fifty  miles  from  its 
mouth,  until  the  savannahs  finally  give  place  to  forest, 


CITY    AND    STATE    OF    EOLTVAR    219 

villages  may  be  found  on  the  sites  of  the  old 
Capuchin  Missions.  The  chief  tributary  is  the 
Paragua,  but  this  and  the  minor  affluents  are  alike 
known  chiefly  from  the  casual  information  of  the 
Indians  who  inhabit  the  forests  along  the  banks. 
Yet  there  may  be  extensive  savannahs  in  the 
uplands,  and  the  geology  of  Guayana  would  lead  one 
to  expect  to  find  gold,  while  the  forests  undoubtedly 
contain  great  wealth  of  timber  and  vegetable  pro- 
ducts, all  waiting  to  reward  the  industry  of  the 
pioneer  bold  enough  to  take  his  lot  in  these  remote 
regions . 

Above  Bolivar  the  Orinoco  has  a  tranquil  course 
for  some  distance  between  llanos  on  the  north  and 
granite  hills  and  savannahs  on  the  south.  Above 
Moitaco,  however,  there  is  a  sharp  S  bend,  with 
many  islands,  where  the  current  gradually  increases 
in  strength  as  one  approaches  the  Puerto  or  Boca  del 
Infierno  (Gates  of  Hell),  where  the  whole  stream 
rushes  through  a  narrow  gorge  with  such  force  as 
to  occasionally  drive  back  the  river  steamers.  Beyond 
this  to  the  mouth  of  the  Caura  the  main  river,  though 
full  of  rocks,  is  wide  and  the  current  less  rapid. 

Like  most  of  the  Guayana  tributaries  of  the  Lower 
Orinoco,  for  the  last  forty  or  fifty  miles  before  it 
joins  the  main  river  the  Caura  flows  through  wide 
savannahs,  broken  here  and  there  by  wooded  hills, 
and  by  the  belts  of  trees  along  the  river  banks. 
In  these  more  fertile  belts  clearings  have  been  made 
at  a  few  spots,  with  one  or  two  miserable  huts,  whose 
occupants  cultivate  the  sugar,  rice,  bananas,  manioc, 
sweet  potatoes,  and  yams  of  these  tiny  plantations. 

Higher  up  the  forests  begin,  and,  as  far  as  is 
known,  the  upper  valley  of  the  Caura  is  all  forest, 
with  very  few  savannahs.  In  these  forests  the  tonka- 
bean  (sarrapia)  grows  to  perfection,  and  the  col- 
lecting of  these,  and  of  a  certain  amount  of 
copaiba-balsam     and     cedar-wood,     constitutes     the 


220  VENEZUELA 

chief  industry  of  the  Caura  settlements.  Of  late 
years  the  tonka-bean  has  gone  down  in  value,  and 
the  inhabitants  have  turned  their  attention  more  to 
rice-farming,  for  which  the  Caura  lowlands  are  well 
fitted.  Most  of  the  produce  is  used  locally,  but  a 
small  surplus  is  shipped  to  Ciudad  Bolivar. 

The  dense  forests  are  not  absolutely  unbroken, 
however,  for  here  and  there  are  bare  open  spaces  of 
flat  granite  rock,  known  as  lajas;  it  is  to  these 
that  the  foresters  come  often  to  crush  and  dry  the 
tonka-beans.  Up  the  Nichare,  a  western  tributary 
of  the  Caura  above  the  Raudales  of  Mura,  there  is 
said  to  be  much  rubber  of  good  quality,  but  it 
remains  practically  untouched  for  want  of  population 
in  the  region. 

Some  130  miles  up  the  Caura  from  its  mouth  are 
the  falls  or  rapids  of  Para,  with  a  total  descent  of 
apparently  about  200  feet,  according  to  Andre,  the 
author  of  the  only  reliable  account  of  the  Upper 
Caura.  Some  day,  as  he  suggests,  the  falls  may 
provide  power  for  sawmills  and  a  town  whose  pros- 
perity is  founded  upon  the  natural  wealth  of  the 
surrounding  forest  ;  at  present  all  is  wild,  and  almost 
unknown.  There  is  a  portage  over  the  falls,  by 
way  of  an  island  in  the  middle,  and  then  begins  the 
Merevari,  as  the  Caura  above  Para  is  called. 

The  two  chief  tributaries  on  the  west  bank  are 
the  Nichare,  already  mentioned,  and  the  Erewato, 
above  Para,  once  colonised  by  the  early  missionaries 
and  afterwards  the  line  of  a  short  cut  to  the 
Upper  Orinoco  ;  now  the  valley  is  unknown  to 
Europeans. 

Two  days'  journey  in  canoes  above  the  big  rapids  is 
the  gorge  of  Ayaima,  where  the  great  stream  is  forced 
to  rush  through  a  channel  30  feet  wide,  between 
walls  of  granite.  Above  this  the  flat-topped,  steep- 
sided  peak  of  Achaba,  and  beyond  it  those  of  Arichi 
to  the  west  and  Am^ha  to  the  east,  may  be  seen. 


CITY    AND    STATE    OF    BOLIVAR    221 

On  his  adventurous  journey  Andre  reached  the  last 
of  these,  where  he  experienced  one  of  the  severe 
thunderstorms  of  the  region,  interpreted  by  the 
Waiomgomos  as  the  angry  voice  of  the  spirits  of 
the  mountain. 

These  Waiomgomos  are  found  in  their  original 
haunts  round  the  headwaters  of  the  Caura,  and  there 
they  are  said  to  go  about  with  faces  and  bodies 
painted  bright  red,  wearing  only  the  guayuco  or  buja. 
It  is  strange  that  they  are  very  reluctant  to  give 
their  Indian  names  to  outsiders,  and  always  on 
approaching  the  bounds  of  civilisation  adopt  a 
Spanish  name. 

The  forests  and  savannahs  of  the  Lower  Caura, 
like  most  of  the  districts  near  the  Orinoco,  are  fright- 
fully infested  with  bush-ticks,  mosquitoes,  and  sand- 
flies ;  higher  in  the  hills  these  pests  decrease,  but 
they  effectually  prevent  absolute  enjoyment  of  an 
exploring  trip  where  they  are  found. 

Beyond  the  Caura's  mouth  the  main  river  is  devoid 
of  special  interest  to  Caicara,  where  it  comes  sweep- 
ing round  a  hill,  leaving  a  fine  backwater  behind  as 
a  safe  anchorage  for  boats — the  reason  of  the  former 
importance  of  the  town,  now,  alas  !  only  a  village 
of  mud  and  wattle  huts.  Its  commerce  is  confined 
to  rice,  tonka-beans,  and  hides,  the  latter  from  the 
savannahs  which  stretch  away  southwards  in  all 
directions  to  the  hills. 

The  Cuchivero,  which  enters  the  Orinoco  fifteen 
miles  east  of  Caicara,  is,  in  part  at  least,  far  better 
known  than  the  Caura,  and,  though  smaller,  is 
a  more  important  river  at  the  present  time,  since 
the  savannahs  of  the  Cuchivaro  support  many 
cattle,  and  there  are  hatos  here  and  there  as 
far  as  the  Raudal  Seriapo.  These  savannahs 
are  of  guinea-grass,  broken  here  and  there  by 
chaparral,  moriche-palms,  or  morros—i.e.,  small 
rocky  hills   covered   with   trees,   amongst   which   the 


222  VENEZUELA 

Diptcryx  odorata  is  common,  giving  to  the  wooded 
mounds  the  name  of  sarrapiales. 

The  waters  of  the  Guaniamo,  a  tributary  of  the 
Cuchivero,  are  said  to  be  noticeably  affected  by  the 
quantity  of  sarsaparilla  on  the  river's  banks,  and 
the  whole  upper  valley  of  the  Cuchivero  is  rich  in 
rubber,  copaiba,  quinine,  mahogany,  "  cedar,"  and 
other  valuable  forest  products.  According  to  Major 
Paterson,  traces  of  gold,  cinnabar,  and  silver  are 
found  in  the  hills.  In  the  distant  south  are  the 
typical  mushroom  peaks  of  Guayana,  showing  that 
here  also  the  geology  is  similar  to  that  of  the  gold- 
field  area,  and  the  minerals  may  therefore  also  be 
alike. 

It  is  not  pleasant  travelling  in  the  Cuchivero 
fiorests.  Major  Paterson  tells  us.  The  trees  grow 
over  loose  rock,  and  the  crevices  under  the  tangled 
roots  may  often  cause  nasty  falls  ;  and  there  are 
the  ubiquitous  mosquitoes  and  sandflies,  to  make 
matters  worse.  But  higher  up  the  insects  become 
fewer,  and  from  the  occasional  savannahs  or  lajas 
splendid  views  may  be  obtained  of  the  hill  ranges 
to  the  south,  between  the  Caura  and  the  Ventuari. 
The  Indians  of  these  forests  are  presumably  the 
Piaroas,  said  to   be  a  peaceable,   mild   race. 

The  climate  of  all  the  lower  Orinoco  Valley  is  far 
from  pleasant  in  the  rains,  but  in  the  dry  season, 
which  lasts  from  October  to  March,  an  easterly  breeze 
blows  both  morning  and  afternoon,  the  sweltering 
interval  during  the  lull  at  midday  serving  only  to 
accentuate  the  pleasant  comparative  coolness  of  the 
rest.  The  nights  then  are  often  chilly,  owing  to 
the  heavy  dews. 


CHAPTER    XV 

THE  AMAZONAS  TERRITORY 

Area— General  character — San  Fernando  de  Atabapo — The  upper 
Orinoco  —  Communication  with  outside  world  —  Atures  and 
Maipures  rapids — Humboldt's  description  —  The  Compaiiia 
Anonima  de  Navegacion  Fluvial  y  Costanera — General  Chalbaud 
— Railway  projects — The  Piaroas — Curare — Savannahs — Rubber 
— Brazil-nuts — Wild  cocoa — Mineral  wealth — Water-power — 
Rubber  prospectors — Method  of  working — Esmeralda — The 
place  of  flies — Mt.  Duida — Gold  possibilities — The  Raudal  de 
los  Guaharibos — The  limit  of  exploration — The  Ventuari — An 
old  Spanish  road — A  midnight  massacre — Stock-raising  lands — 
The  Maquiritare — Trading  with  gold-dust — The  Casiquiare 
bifurcation — Life  of  the  natives — Eau  de  Cologne  in  the  wilds — 
The  Guainia  and  Rio  Negro — Maroa — Cucuhy — The  Atabapo — 
Lack  of  population — Education — Colonisation — General  pros- 
pects. 

On  the  right  bank  of  the  Orinoco  above  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Meta  and  below  that  of  the  Atabapo, 
and  south-eastward  of  this  on  both  banks  of  the 
main  river,  lies  the  great  but  little  known  Territorio 
Amazonas,  extending  over  the  ill-defined  watershed 
into  the  Rio  Negro,  and,  therefore,  the  Amazon, 
basin.  The  area  included  in  the  territory  amounts 
to  some  281,700  square  kilometres  or  101,400  square 
miles,  and  of  this  vast  region  practically  nothing 
is  known,  save  the  character  of  the  banks  of  the 
larger  rivers  and  of  such  parts  of  the  hills  and  forests 
as  may  have  been  traversed  by  the  few  explorers  who 
have  entered  the  hinterland  of  the  Guayanas. 


224  VENEZUELA 

On  the  northern  and  eastern  borders  the  general 
character  of  the  region  is  Hke  that  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  State  of  BoHvar,  the  boundary  to  the 
north  being  more  or  less  arbitrary,  in  part  at  least. 
The  Brazilian  frontier  follows  the  watershed  of  the 
Sierra  Parima  in  its  northern  part,  but  near  the 
Rio  Negro  this  line  also  ceases  to  be  determined 
by   any   clearly  marked  natural   features. 

The  capital  of  this  huge  and  almost  unknown  area 
is  San  Fernando  de  Atabapo,  little  more  than  a  village 
from  the  point  of  view  of  population,  which  amounted 
to  only  388  in  1891,  but  still  the  largest  centre 
in  the  region.  It  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the 
Atabapo  and  Orinoco,  the  land  on  which  it  stands 
being  practically  an  island  on  account  of  the  channel 
connecting  the  two  rivers  behind  the  settlement  ;  the 
Inirida  and  Guaviare  enter  the  Atabapo  opposite  the 
town,  the  contrast  between  the  white  waters  of  the 
Guaviare,  the  black,  clear  stream  of  the  Atabapo,  and 
the  muddy  Orinoco  being  very  noticeable.  The  capital 
is  the  seat  of  the  Governor  and  a  Judge  of  First 
Instance  and  minor  officials,  who  constitute  an 
appreciable  fraction  of  the  population. 

The  upper  Orinoco  basin  includes  some  of  the 
best  known,  as  well  as  some  of  the  least  explored 
districts  in  the  whole  territory.  The  old  mission 
station  of  Esmeralda  (longitude  65°  40'  W.,  lati- 
tude 3'  11'  N.)  marks  the  limit  of  any  attempt  at 
civilisation  on  the  upper  Orinoco,  and  beyond  this 
point  our  knowledge  of  the  country  is  very  scant 
indeed.  Below  this  point  the  river  and  forests  and 
savannahs  near  its  bank  are  comparatively  well 
known,  from  the  number  of  travellers  and  small 
rubber  prospectors,  as  far  as  San  Fernando,  and 
below  this  again  little  exploration  has  been  carried 
out  away  from  the  river,  which,  nevertheless,  is  the 
main  line  of  communication  with  Pericos,  below  the 
Atures  Rapids,  whence  steamers  run  down  the  lower 


THE    AMAZONAS    TERRITORY     225 

Orinoco  to  Ciudad  Bolivar,  and  so  afford  communica- 
tion with  the  outside  worfd. 

The  Atures  Rapids,  the  biggest  on  the  Orinoco, 
form  at  present  an  effectual  barrier  to  through  com- 
munication by  steamer  between  the  upper  and  lower 
river,  a  difficulty  formerly  obviated  by  the  construc- 
tion of  a  now  disused  cart-road  from  Pericos  to 
Salvajitos,  above  the  rapids,  a  distance  of  1 4  kilo- 
metres. But  though  the  rapids  have  thus  barred  the 
advance  of  civilisation,  their  great  beauty  and  the 
possibility  that  one  day  they  may  afford  the  power  for 
an  electric  railway  along  the  line  of  the  old  cart-road 
beyond  compensate  for  any  such  disadvantage. 

Humboldt  thus  describes  the  Maipures  and  Atures 
Rapids  in  his  "  Ansichten  der  Natur."  They  are, 
he  says,  "to  be  regarded  as  a  countless  number  of 
small  cascades  succeeding  each  other  like  steps.  The 
Raudal  (as  the  Spanish  term  this  kind  of  cataract) 
is  formed  by  an  archipelago  of  islands  and  rocks, 
which  so  contract  the  bed  of  the  river  that  its  natural 
width  of  more  than  8,500  feet  is  often  reduced  to  a 
channel  scarcely  navigable  to  the  extent  of  20  feet. 
At  the  present  day  the  eastern  side  is  far  less  acces- 
sible and  far  more  dangerous  than  the  western. 

"  .  .  .  It  was  with  surprise  I  found,  by  baro- 
metrical measurements,  that  the  entire  fall  of  the 
Raudal  (of  Maipures)  scarcely  amounted  to  more 
than  30  or  32  feet.  ...  I  say  with  surprise,  for 
I  hence  discovered  that  the  tremendous  roar  and 
wild  dashing  of  the  stream  arose  from  the  contraction 
of  its  bed  by  numerous  rocks  and  islands,  and  the 
counter-currents  produced  by  the  form  and  position 
of  the  masses  of  rock. 

"...  The  beholder  enjoys  a  most  striking  and 
wonderful  prospect.  A  foaming  surface,  several  miles 
in  length,  intersected  with  iron -black  masses  of  rock 
projecting  like  battlemented  ruins  from  the  waters, 
is  seen  at  one  view.  Every  islet  and  every  rock  is 
15 


226  VENEZUELA 

adorned  with  luxuriant  forest  trees.  A  perpetual  mist 
hovers  over  the  watery  mirror,  and  the  summits  of  the 
lofty  palms  pierce  through  the  crowd  of  vapoury  spray. 
When  the  rays  of  the  glowing  evening  sun  are  re- 
fracted in  the  humid  atmosphere,  an  exquisite  optical 
illusion  is  produced.  Coloured  bows  appear,  vanish, 
and  reappear,  while  the  ethereal  picture  dances,  like  an 
ignis  fatuus,  with  every  motion  of  the  sportive  breeze. 

"  .  .  ,  A  canal  might  be  opened  between  the 
Cameji  and  the  Toparo  .  .  .  which  would  become 
a  navigable  arm  of  the  Orinoco,  and  supersede  the 
old  and  dangerous  bed  of  the  river. 

"  The  Raudal  of  Atures  is  exactly  similar  to  that 
of  Maipures,  like  which,  it  consists  of  a  cluster  of 
islands  between  which  the  river  forces  itself  a  passage 
extending  from   18,000  to  24,000  feet. 

"...  rocks,  like  dykes,  connected  one  island 
with  another.  At  one  time  the  water  shoots  over 
these  dykes,  at  another  it  falls  into  their  cavities  with 
a  deafening  hollow  sound.  In  some  places  consider- 
able portions  of  the  bed  of  the  river  are  perfectly 
dry,  in  consequence  of  the  stream  having  opened 
for  itself  a  subterranean  passage.  In  this  solitude 
the  golden-coloured   rock   manakin   builds   its   nest." 

The  contract  recently  entered  into  with  General 
R.  D.  Chalbaud,  the  President  of  the  Compania 
Anonima  de  Navegacion  Fluvial  y  Costanera  de 
Venezuela,  stipulates  for  a  railway  worked  by  steam 
or  electricity  to  provide  a  land  connection  between 
a  service  of  upper  Orinoco  steamers  above  the 
Maipures  Rapids  and  the  lower  Orinoco  steamers 
already  plying  below  those  of  Atures  ;  the  time  may 
not  be  far  distant,  therefore,  when  these  beautiful 
falls  will  also  add  to  the  sum  of  the  world's  happiness 
by  assisting  in  opening  up  a  vast  extent  of  territory 
rich  in  agricultural  and  mineral  products,  which 
hitherto  they  themselves  have  been  largely  instru- 
mental in  closing. 


THE    AMAZONAS    TERRITORY     227 

From  the  right  bank  of  the  Orinoco  in  the  region 
of  the  rapids  along  the  Sipapo  and  Cataniapo  tribu- 
taries to  the  hills  forming  the  watershed  between 
that  river  and  the  Ventuari,  and  beyond  these,  is  the 
unknown  territory  of  the  Piaroa  Indians,  whose  sacred 
mountain  of  Sipapo  is  visible  from  the  Orinoco  banks. 
The  name  Piaroa  appears  to  be  a  general  term 
including  those  branches  of  families  of  the  Maipures, 
Atures,  &c.,  which  were  formerly  considered  to  be 
separate  tribes.  Tavera-Acosta  describes  them  as 
a  timid  people,  devoted  to  agriculture,  and  they  are 
said  to  be  very  light  in  colour.  They  frequently 
come  down  to  the  town  of  Atures  to  exchange  their 
curare,  cotton,  cassava,  plantains,  and  game  for 
general  merchandise  and  tools  ;  and  their  curare  is 
held  in  high  esteem  for  its  purity  and  high  quality 
by  the  other  tribes. 

Of  an  unexplored  country  such  as  that  of  the  Piaroas 
little  or  nothing  can  be  said  definitely  with  regard 
to  the  products,  but  the  observations  of  travellers 
as  to  the  coimtry  along  the  river  banks  and  the 
circumstantial  accounts  of  the  remainder  derived  from 
some  of  the  inhabitants  point  to  this  region  as  one 
rich  in  all  manner  of  resources. 

Near  the  Orinoco  and  at  intervals  throughout  the 
region  there  are  grass  plains,  or  savannahs,  which 
may  some  day,  like  those  elsewhere  in  Guayana, 
support  many  thousand  head  of  cattle.  In  the  forests 
which  surround  these  savannahs  there  are  quantities 
of  untouched  rubber-trees  {Hevea  guianensis  and  H . 
Brasilensis).  Though  near  the  rivers,  the  wild  rubber 
has  been  exploited  to  some  small  extent,  not  always 
wisely,  the  output  of  the  district  is  very  far  below 
what  it  might  be,  apart  from  the  possibility  of  planta- 
tion rubber,  the  lack  of  development  being  due, 
as  throughout  the  Orinoco  region,  to  lack  of  popula- 
tion. Practically  all  the  available  hands  work  at  the 
collection  of  rubber,  but  a  few  trees  of  Bertholettia 


228  VENEZUELA 

excelsa,  the  Brazil-nut,  have  been  planted  near 
San  Fernando,  and  the  enormous  quantities  of  wild 
nuts  which  at  present  lie  on  the  ground  and  rot  will 
doubtless  one  day  be  systematically  collected  and 
exported  ;  to  mention  only  one  other  of  the  many 
forest  products,  there  are,  along  the  Orinoco  below 
San  Fernando,  many  natural  cacao  patches  {Theo- 
hroma  cacao),  as  yet  untouched  and  undeveloped. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  speak  of  the  valuable  timber- 
trees  of  which  the  forests  are  largely  composed,  and 
the  quantity  of  natural  vegetable  products  of  the 
region  is  as  yet  only  to  be  surmised  from  the  casual 
specimens  brought  in  by  natives  or  travellers. 

"Nor  is  there  lack  of  mineral  resources  ;  the  lajas 
which  so  often  occur  both  in  the  savannahs  and  as 
bare  patches  in  the  midst  of  the  forest  frequently 
show  indications  of  metallic  ores,  and  below  Pericos, 
on  the  Orinoco,  copper  is  said  to  be  visible  in  the 
river  banks.  The  Indians  frequently  show  specimens 
of  ores,  iron,  manganese,  copper,  and  even  gold, 
the  localities  of  which  they  are  not  unnaturally  un- 
willing to  reveal  until  there  is  some  prospect  of 
development  of  the   "  mine." 

Finally,  the  big  falls  on  the  Cataniapo  and  Sipapo 
and  other  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco,  with  the  rapids 
of  the  main  river,  promise  a  supply  of  power  in  the 
Piaroa  territory  sufficient  for  all  probable  demands 
for  many  years  to  come. 

The  7  5  kilometres  of  open  water  between  the 
Atures  and  Maipures  Rapids  is  navigable  for  steamers 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  but  the  upper 
of  the  two  great  "  raudales  "  proves  a  bar  again 
to  through  communication  with  the  upper  Orinoco 
and  its  tributaries.  Above  Maipures,  however,  there 
is  no  serious  hindrance  to  navigation,  even  through 
to  the  Amazon  basin  by  way  of  the  Casiquiare  bifur- 
cation. 

Some   twenty   miles   above   Maipures   the   Orinoco 


<t 


1^'^ 


:i 


THE    AMAZONAS    TERRITORY     229 

receives  the  large  volume  of  water  drained  by  the 
River  Vichada  from  the  llanos  of  the  San  Martin 
territory  of  Colombia,  and  a  little  over  one  hundred 
miles  from  Maipures  the  Guaviare  and  Atabapo  dis- 
charge their  waters  side  by  side  into  the  main  stream. 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Guaviare  up  to  Esmeralda  is 
probably  the  best  known  portion  of  the  upper  valley, 
since  it  is  here  that  the  majority  of  small  rubber 
prospectors  have  obtained  small  fortunes  after  a  short 
period  of  hard  and  rough  labour  in  the  insect-infested 
forests.  The  same  causes  as  those  referred  to  above 
in  the  lower  parts  of  the  Orinoco  have  here  also  pre- 
vented more  systematic  and  continuous  exploitation  ; 
those  who  have  ventured  to  brave  the  discomforts 
and  dangers  of  the  forest  have  almost  invariably 
retired  with  their  gains  to  taste  such  pleasures  of 
civilisation  as  the  towns  of  the  Lower  Orinoco  and 
neighbouring  regions  afiord  ;  thus  the  scanty  popula- 
tion remains  stationary,  and  previously,  from  want 
cither  of  sufficient  interest  or  opportunity,  capital  has 
never  attempted  to  introduce  colonists  or  to  develop 
the  resources  of  the  region  with  such  labour  as  can 
be  had. 

The  picadores  de  goma  have  thus  only  seen  the 
forests  along  the  river  for  a  few  'kilometres  on  either 
bank,  and  the  remoter  parts  of  the  region  are  as  little 
known  as  any  other  part  of  the  territory  of  the 
Amazons.  The  rubber  collectors  enter  the  forest  in 
the  month  of  October,  the  season  lasting  from  then 
to  February  or  March,  and  parcel  out  the  forest 
among  themselves,  each  man  taking  an  area  including 
some  five  hundred  trees  or  more.  He  then  proceeds 
to  cut  an  estrada  through  the  forest  along  a  tortuous 
course,  so  arranged  that  about  half  the  rubber-trees 
lie  on  either  side.  He  will  begin  to  traverse  this 
path  at  sunrise  and  tap  the  trees  of  either  group  on 
alternate  days,  the  latex  being  carried  back  to  the  river 
late  in  the  day  and  put  to  smoke  in  huts  by  the  river. 


230  VENEZUELA 

Each  day  he  may  collect  eight  or  ten  gallons  of  sap, 
and  so  twelve  or  fifteen  hundredweight  in  the  season, 
in  addition  to  inferior  gums  derived  from  the  creepers 
which  hang  everywhere  from  the  large  forest  trees. 

The  rubber  and  other  valuable  trees,  including  the 
wild  cacao  and  brazil-nuts,  seem  to  become  less 
scattered  above  Maipures,  and  this  is  doubtless  an 
additional  reason  for  the  greater  extent  of  exploita- 
tion in  this  more  remote  district,  while  it  should  also 
be  remembered  that  the  Casiquiare  affords  a  high- 
way for  the  bold  and  industrious  Banibas  and  other 
Indians  of  the  Rio  Negro  basin  to  the  rubber -pro- 
ducing forests,  which  afford  better  returns  than  those 
in  their  immediate  neighbourhood. 

About  forty  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Guaviare, 
where  the  Orinoco  again  changes  the  direction  of 
its  course  from  parallel  to  meridian,  the  Delta  and 
mouth  of  the  great  Ventuari  tributary  is  encountered 
and  beyond  this  the  course  is  in  a  south-easterly 
direction  and  so  continues  as  far  as  the  source.  The 
famous  Casiquiare  bifurcation  is  about  150  miles 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Ventuari  ;  and  Esmeralda,  the 
highest  point  of  attempted  permanent  civilisation  on 
the  Orinoco,   is  some  twenty  miles   beyond. 

Esmeralda  was,  even  in  Humboldt's  time,  a 
flourishing  mission,  but  has  been  now  for  many  years 
little  more  than  a  name,  the  houses  being  reduced 
to  two  or  three  huts.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  quantity  of  fragments  of  chloritic  and  colour- 
less quartz  which  lie  scattered  about  the  grass  plains 
on  which  the  mission  was  established.  All  travellers 
bear  witness  to  the  beauty  of  the  position,  with  the 
peak  of  Duida  visible  beyond  the  forest  to  the  north- 
east ;  but  they  also  agree  in  considering  Esmeralda 
the  worst  place  for  the  tiny  sand-flies  (mosquitoes 
of  the  Spaniards),  which  are  the  great  plague  of 
the  Upper  Orinoco. 

Duida   appears    to   be    one   of   the   peaks    of   the 


THE    AMAZONAS    TERRITORY     231 

vertical-sided  tableland  type  usual  in  Guayana, 
belonging  to  a  range  of  mountains  extending  into  the 
Piaroa  territory,  though  broken  at  many  points  by 
river  valleys,  mcluding  that  of  the  Ventuari.  Though 
similarity  of  form  cannot  always  be  regarded  as 
indicating  identity  of  composition,  the  fact  that  such 
observations  as  have  been  made  point  to  the  floor 
of  the  whole  elevated  plateau  of  Guayana,  here  as 
elsewhere,  being  made  of  the  same  granite  as  that 
of  the  Roraima  Hills  and  the  Callao  goldfields.  It 
seems  justifiable  to  suppose  that  all  these  peculiar 
mountains  are  of  the  same  probably  pre-Cambrian 
sediments,  and  it  may  be  that  Mount  Duida  and  the 
range  of  which  it  is  part  will  be  found  to  be  pierced 
by  the  dykes  and  sills  which  elsewhere  in  the 
Guayanas  are  often  found  to  be  accompanied  by 
gold  and  other  ores. 

Beyond  Esmeralda  several  travellers,  from  the  time 
of  Don  Francisco  de  Bobadilla  downwards,  have 
reached  the  Raudal  de  los  Guaharibos,  but  all  have 
been  compelled  to  turn  back  from  those  rapids,  on 
account  of  the  ferocity  of  the  Indians  of  that  name. 
Only  one  traveller  claimed  to  have  been  more 
fortunate  than  the  rest  and  to  have  reached  the  source 
of  the  great  river.  The  Guaharibo  Rapids  are  situated 
some  1 20  miles  up-stream  from  Esmeralda. 

The  Ventuari  is  the  largest  Venezuelan  tributary 
of  the  Upper  Orinoco,  yet  the  three  hundred  miles  or 
so  of  its  course  are  practically  unknown  to  Europeans . 
As  far  as  its  valley  has  been  explored,  alternating 
forests  and  savannahs  have  beeft  found.  Across  these 
in  colonial  times  there  was  once  a  track  uniting 
Esmeralda  directly  with  the  Lower  Orinoco  by  way 
of  the  Caura  ;  the  route  lay  up  the  Padamo  and  then 
across  the  headwaters  of  the  Ventuari  to  the  source 
of  the  Erewato,  a  tributary  of  the  Caura.  Along 
this  road  there  was  a  chain  of  forts,  but  the  cruelties 
of  the  soldiers  at  laSt  led  the  Indians  to  unite   for 


232  VENEZUELA 

their  examination,  and  Humboldt  tells  us  that  every 
man  in  the  fifty-league-long  chain  of  forts  was  slain 
one  night  in  1776.  The  Indians  told  him  that  by 
this  road  it  was  ten  days  from  Esmeralda  to  tho 
headquarters  of  the  Ventuari,  and  two  days  thence  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Erewato. 

Some  of  the  upland  savannahs  which  this  road 
crossed  must  be  excellently  situated  both  for  occu- 
pation by  Europeans  and  for  stock-raising,  but  the 
region  is  naturally  very  difficult  of  access  at  present, 
lying  as  it  does  in  the  very  back  of  the  hinterland  of 
the  Guayana.  These  districts  are  occupied  by  the 
Maquiritare,  near  relatives  of,  if  not  identical  with, 
the  Waiomgomo  of  the  Caura.  Their  territory  pro- 
duces rubber  and  timber  as  well  as  gold.  Auriferous 
quartz  is  said  to  have  been  seen  by  casual  traders 
up  the  Ventuari,  and  the  inhabitants  collect  the 
precious  metal,  storing  it  in  jars,  with  which,  by 
devious  waterways  and  many  portages,  they  travel 
across  to  British  Guiana  to  trade  for  rifles  of  a 
quality  unobtainable  in  southern  Venezuela. 

Separated  by  a  narrow  ridge  from  the  Ventuari 
is  the  upper  valley  of  the  Merevari  (Caura),  a  prac- 
tically unknown  region,  scantily  peopled  by  the 
Waiomgomo,  and  apparently  possessing  no  particular 
attractions  from  a  commercial  point  of  view. 

On  the  south  side  of  the  main  river  we  have  one 
of  the  most  notable  instances  of  a  natural  phenome- 
non peculiar  to  the  elevated  inland  plain  of  South 
America  in  the  celebrated  bifurcation  of  the  Casi- 
quiare,  some  twenty  miles  below  Esmeralda.  The 
watershed  between  the  Orinoco  and  the  Rio  Negro 
is  here  very  ill  defined,  and  near  the  bifurcation  a 
line  of  slight  elevation  on  the  southern  bank  of  the 
former  river  is  all  that  exists  to  separate  the  two 
great  drainage  systems.  At  the  head  of  the  Casi- 
quiare  the  elevation  is  sufficiently  reduced  to  allow 
some   part  of  the   water  of  the   Orinoco   to  overflow 


THE    AMAZON  AS    TERRITORY     233 

into  the  southern  drainage  area,  and  so  affords  a 
through  waterway  to  the  whole  of  the  Amazon  Valley. 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Brazo,  as  it  is  called, 
there  are  numerous  tributaries,  whose  upper  courses 
are  absolutely  unknown,  save  from  the  casual  reports 
of  wandering  Indians.  The  main  stream  and  its 
affluents  alike  flow  through  great  forests,  and  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  Casiquiare  being 
level,  the  valley  is  damp  and  abounds  in  small  lakes 
and  swamps. 

There  is  abundant  rubber  in  the  forests,  but  the 
life  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  small  settlements,  which 
are  mainly  supported  by  this  industry,  is  a  miserable 
one.  They  live  chiefly  on  cassava,  accompanied  by 
much  alcohol  in  one  form  or  another,  from  champagne 
to  raw  sugar  spirit  ;  if  other  beverages  fail,  they 
have  even  fallen  back  on  eau-de-Cologne,  brought 
from  Para  or  Ciudad  Bolivar  and,  one  would  have 
imagined,  too  expensive  a  luxury  to  be  imbibed  in 
quantity. 

The  Casiquiare  discharges  its  waters  into  the 
Guainia,  or  more  correctly,  the  two  streams  join  to 
form  the  Rio  Negro,  the  river  being  known  by  that 
name  below  the  junction.  The  highest  village  of 
importance  on  the  Guainia  is  Maroa,  the  seat  of 
government  of  the  Rio  Negro  district.  The  Guainia 
being  a  clear,  deep  {i.e.,  black)  stream,  with  a  cloud- 
less sky  overhead  and  no  mosquitoes,  Maroa  enjoys 
a  good  climate.  Its  inhabitants  cultivate  an 
excellent  quality  of  manioc  and  manufacture  ham- 
mocks . 

The  forests  of  the  Guainia  and  Rio  Negro  are 
comparatively  little  known,  though  some  rubber  is 
collected  along  the  banks.  The  old  settlement  of 
San  Carlos,  on  the  Rio  Negro,  is  now  abandoned,  and 
beyond  this  there  are  no  Venezuelan  villages  before 
the  hill  known  as  the  Cerro  del  Cucuhy,  which  marks 
the   Brazilian   frontier,   and   beyond   lies   the   military 


234  VENEZUELA 

station  of  Cucuhy,  occupied  by  soldiers  of  the  latter 
republic. 

Although,  as  we  have  seen,  it  is  possible  to  travel 
by  water  from  the  Orinoco  to  the  Amazon,  the  more 
direct  route  up  the  Atabapo  and  across  the 
"  Isthmus  "  of  Pimichin  to  the  Guainia  is  generally 
used  by  the  Indians  and  traders. 

Above  San  Fernando  there  are  no  towns  on  the 
banks  of  the  Atabapo,  though  many  native  villages. 
To  the  south-east  of  the  capital  is  the  wide  savannah 
of  Santa  Barbara,  capable  of  supporting  a  vast 
number  of  cattle.  Farther  south  the  banks  are  forest- 
covered,  and  when  the  head  of  navigation  is  reached 
at  Yavita  the  route  across  to  Pimichin  lies  between 
giant  trees,  which  have  attracted  the  attention  of 
many  travellers.  The  watershed  here  between  the 
two  rivers  has  no  great  elevation,  and  it  would  be 
possible  to  excavate  a  canal  and  so  provide  a  far 
shorter  waterway  between  the  two  great  river 
systems.  Whether  such  a  project  will  ever  seem  to 
be  justified  is  another  matter. 

The  great  hindrance  to  progress  over  the  whole 
of  the  Amazons  territory  is  at  present  lack  of  popula- 
tion, for  with  less  than  two  persons  to  the  square 
mile  it  is  impossible  to  do  much  towards  developing 
the  country.  Apart  from  their  natural  lack  of 
enthusiasm,  the  Indians  have  for  over  a  century  been 
neglected  as  far  as  education  is  concerned,  and 
whether  judicious  action  in  this  direction  on  the  part 
of  the  Government  would  be  possible  or  profitable 
one  cannot  say.  The  general  tendency  of  the 
authorities  is  rather  towards  colonisation  by 
Europeans,  with  due  regard  to  the  protection  of 
the  Indians.  However  its  development  may 
eventually  come  about,  there  is  no  doubt  of  the 
great  possibilities  of  the  territory,  pastoral,  agricul- 
tural, and  mineral  resources  being  alike  abundant 
and  untried. 


CHAPTER    XVI 

THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   VENEZUELA 

Commerce — Early  liistor}' — Pearls  and  gold — The  Guipuzcoana 
Company — The  republic — Years  of  struggle — Separation  from 
Colombia — Guzman  Blanco — British,  American,  and  German 
trade — Opportunities — Currency — Banking — Banco  de  Vene- 
zuela— Banco  Caracas — Banco  de  Maracaibo — National  Debt — 
Natural  resources — Large  returns  on  capital — Coal — Iron — Salt 
— Asphalt  and  petroleum — Sulphur — Copper — Gold — The  Llanos 
— Stock-raising — Possibilities  of  the  industry — The  Venezuelan 
Meat  Products  Syndicate — Agriculture — Coffee — Cocoa — Sugar 
— Tobacco — Cotton — Rubber — Tonka-beans,  balata,  sernambi 
and  copaiba  —  Fisheries  —  Pearls  —  Industries  —  Chocolate — 
Cotton-mills — Tanning — Matches,  glass,  and  paper — Cigarettes 
and  beer — Arts  and  sciences — Academy  of  History — Universi- 
ties— Surveys. 

The  gradual  advance  of  Venezuela  into  a  position 
of  real  importance  in  the  commonwealth  of  nations 
can  hardly  be  considered  to  have  commenced  till 
the  country  took  approximately  its  present  political 
boundaries  and  organisation,  since  before  that  time 
the  movement  in  commercial  dealings  with  the  outside 
world  had  been   fitful   and  very   retrogressive. 

The  casual  coincidence  of  some  of  the  colonial 
and  republican  provinces  prior  to  1830  is,  however, 
a  sufficient  excuse  for  a  brief  review  of  the  course 
of  such  development  as  took  place  between  the  dis- 
covery of  South  America  and  the  final  severance  of 
Venezuela  from  Colombia. 
{'  As  has  been  seen  in  the  sketches  of  the  early  history 


236  VENEZUELA 

of  Venezuela,  the  pearl  fisheries  of  the  Caribbean 
Islands  were  the  lure  which  first  attracted  a  band 
of  settlers  who,  however  unworthy  of  the  title  of 
pioneers  or  merchants,  were  nevertheless  the  first 
traffickers  who  carried  the  produce  of  the  New  World 
to  Europe.  The  value  of  the  pearls  exported  in  the 
early  years  of  the  sixteenth  century  appears  to  liave 
been  very  great,  and  equal  to,  if  not  in  excess  of, 
all  the  produce  and  merchandise  shipped  annually 
from  the  colony  of  Venezuela  in  the  closing  years  of 
Spanish  rule.  After  the  destruction  of  the  pearl 
fisheries  by  the  reckless  and  extravagant  exploita- 
tion of  the  conquistadores,  the  value  of  the  exports 
varied  according  to  the  quantity  of  gold  and  precious 
metals  extorted  from  the  Indians,  and  little  trading 
was  carried  on.' 

As  the  easily  accessible  stores  of  gold  decreased, 
the  Court  of  Spain  sought  to  acquire  gain  in  a  not 
entirely  new  fashion  from  the  colonists  by  selling 
them  to  the  Compania  Guipuzcoana  in  1728,  which, 
at  first  but  a  chartered  company  with  special  privi- 
leges, soon  obtained  a  monopoly,  and  became  by  its 
extortions  the  cause  of  the  first  attempt  at  revolt 
on  the  part  of  the  captaincy-general.  At  length  their 
rights  were  abrogated  in  1778,  and  the  commerce 
of  the  colony  was  at  liberty  again  to  develop  in  a 
normal  fashion  ;  though  the  continued  arbitrary  open- 
ing and  closing  of  the  ports  to  foreign  nations  could 
not  but  render  any  advance  very  fitful.  In  1796 
the  imports  into  Venezuela  during  one  of  the  "  open  " 
periods  reached  a  total  of  over  £600,000,  and  in 
1 8 1  o  the  increasing  quantity  of  tropical  produce 
transmitted  to  the  East  was  nearly  one  million  pounds 
in  value. 

Though,  under  the  republic,  the  commerce  of  the 
country  has  greatly  increased,  the  twenty  years  fol- 
lowing the  Declaration  of  Independence  were  a 
period  of  great  industrial  depression.     For  the  first 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  VENEZUELA  237 

ten  years  or  so  the  war  with  Spain  practically  put  a 
stop  to  ordinary  trade  with  foreign  countries  ;  during 
the  joint  administration  of  the  three  provinces  of 
Venezuela,  New  Granada,  and  Ecuador  in  the  Great 
Colombia  of  Bolivar,  Venezuela  suffered  in  all  depart- 
ments of  her  life,  until  at  last  the  union  was  severed 
in  1830,  and  from  that  date  it  is  possible  to  compare 
the  progress  of  Venezuelan  commerce  with  that  of 
other  nations  ;  for  convenience  this  has  been  ex- 
pressed in  a  diagram,  the  solid  line  corresponding  to 
exports  and  the  dotted  line  to  imports.  ;The  zenith  of 
Venezuela's  prosperity  in  the  seventy  years  was 
reached  during  the  Presidency  of  Guzman  Blancc^  the 
figures  for  the  present  day  being  far  below  these. 
The  excess  and  growing  excess  in  value  of  exports 
over  imports  is  natural  in  a  country  rich,  as  Vene- 
zuela is,  in  easily  won  agricultural  and  mineral 
resources  but  poor  as  yet  in  manufactures  and  ship- 
ping ;  and  that  this  is  so  may  be  readily  seen  from 
the  detailed  table  of  exports  and  imports  for  1909- 
1 9 1  o  given  in  Appendix  B . 

As  may  be  seen  from  the  tables  in  Appendix  B, 
the  largest  exporter  to  Venezuela  at  the  present  time 
is  the  United  States,  with  Great  Britain  second  and 
Germany  third.  It  is  only  within  the  last  two  or 
three  years  that  the  United  States  have  advanced  to 
this  position  of  superiority  in  the  trade  of  the  re- 
public, Great  Britain  having  previously  held  the  lead. 
There  is  little  need  to  inquire  into  the  cause  of  this 
influx  of  American  goods,  when  in  travelling  through 
even  remote  parts  of  the  country  one  meets  with 
travellers  exhibiting  and  praising  American  inventions 
and  manufactures  such  as  are  calculated  to  appeal 
to  the  Venezuelan  public,  and  this  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  at  the  present  time  the  American,  as  such, 
apart  from  his  personal  attractiveness  or  otherwise, 
is  not  persona  grata  in  the  country.  The  big  stores, 
with  branches  in  most  of  the  more  important  towns. 


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DEVELOPMENT  OF  VENEZUELA  239 

are  mainly  in  the  hands  of  Germans,  but  the  goods 
sold  are  largely  British  and  American.  More  than 
one  of  them  attributed  their  possession  of  this  trade 
to  the  fact  that  they  are  willing  to  live  in  the  country 
and  work  there  for  a  far  smaller  return  at  present 
than  the  British  trader  ;  but  the  day  of  small  things 
is  not  to  be  despised,  and  in  view  of  the  expansion 
of  trade  and  the  amelioration  of  the  standard  of 
living  evident  at  the  present  time  in  Venezuela,  there 
is  a  great  opportunity  for  British  merchants  to  adopt 
the  persevering  tactics  of  the  German,  and  to  some 
extent  the  pushfulness  of  the  American,  not  only 
to  increase  the  sale  of  their  products  already  shipped 
in  large  quantities  into  Venezuela,  but  to  do  the  sell- 
ing themselves. 

The  chief  medium  of  exchange  has  been  continu- 
ously since  1 8 1 2  the  coinage  of  the  republic,  which 
was  at  first  issued  after  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence from  the  old  royal  mint  at  Cardcas,  but 
for  many  years  all  the  best  known  European  moneys 
of  the  higher  denominations  were  accepted  at  a  fixed 
rate.  In  1848  the  franc  was  for  a  short  time  adopted 
as  the  unit,  followed  by  the  Venezolano  (1854),  and 
in  1879  the  bolivar,  equivalent  to  a  franc,  was  first 
suggested,  but  only  finally  standardised  in  1891, 
since  which  time   it  has   remained  the  unit. 

Banks  were  first  established  in  the  early  eighties, 
but  the  big  commercial  houses,  both  before  and  since 
that  time,  have  carried  on  a  good  deal  of  banking 
business.  The  recognised  banking  institutions  of  the 
country  are  three  in  number,  all  being  permitted  to 
issue  notes  pending  the  establishment  of  a  long- 
mooted   National  Bank. 

The  Banco  de  Venezuela  has  a  nominal  capital  of 
B  12,000,000,  of  which  three-quarters  is  paid  up. 
A  charter  was  first  granted  by  the  Government  to  a 
group  of  Venezuelan  merchants  and  capitalists  on 
March    24,     1882,    to    form    a    Banco    Commercial, 


240  VENEZUELA 

but  in  1903  it  became,  and  has  since  remained, 
national  as  well  as  commercial.  In  August,  1890, 
the  bank  was  reconstructed  as  the  Banco  de  Vene- 
zuela, with  a  capital  of  B  8,000,000,  the  charter  to 
hold  good  for  fifty  years  ;  it  underwent  a  second 
reconstruction  in  1899,  since  which  date  the  nominal 
capital  has  been  B  12,000,000,  divided  into  600 
shares  of  B  20,000  each,  in  the  hands  of  276  share- 
holders. The  note  issue  is  B  2,000,000,  and  the 
reserve  fund  at  the  end  of  1908  was  B  1,200,000. 
The  dividend  declared  that  year  was  equal  to  8  per 
cent,  on  the  total  capital.  The  bank  has  its  head- 
quarters in  Caracas,  with  fourteen  agencies  in  the 
towns  of  the  republic. 

The  Banco  Caracas  was  incorporated  on  August 
23,  1890,  the  charter  holding  good  for  forty  years. 
The  nominal  capital  is  B  6,000,000,  divided  into 
600  shares  of  B  10,000  each,  and  there  are  now 
137  shareholders.  The  note  issue  is  B  801,000,  the 
reserve  fund  at  the  end  of  1908  being  B  579,483, 
while  the  dividend  declared  in  that  year  was  equiva- 
lent to  39  per  cent,  on  the  capital.  The  bank  is 
wholly  devoted  to  commercial  business,  and  has  its 
headquarters  in  Caracas,  with  various  agencies 
throughout   the   republic. 

The  Banco  de  Maracaibo  received  a  thirty-one- 
years  charter  on  May  11,  1882,  and  was  incor- 
porated with  a  capital  of  B  1,250,000,  of  which 
three-quarters  has  been  paid  up.  The  3,750  shares 
are  held  by  161  persons,  who  received  in  1908  a 
dividend  of  9  per  cent,  on  the  total  capital  ;  at  the 
end  of  that  year  the  reserve  fund  was  B  125,000, 
while  the  note  issue  was  B  1,895,000.  The  head- 
quarters of  the  bank  are  in  Maracaibo,  and  there  are 
various  agencies  in  the  western  States  of  the  republic. 

The  National  Debt  of  Venezuela  dates  in  the  first 
place  from  a  few  years  after  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, but  until   1830  it  was,  of  course,  included 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  VENEZUELA  241 

with  that  of  New  Granada  and  Ecuador  in  the  Great 
Colombia.  At  that  date  the  various  internal  floating 
debts  on  the  custom-houses  were  consolidated  at  5 
per  cent,  and  a  further  consolidation  was  authorised 
in  1840.  In  1845  a  further  arrangement  was  made 
under  the  treaty  with  Spain  for  the  payment  of 
indemnity  to  Spanish  subjects  whose  property  had 
been  confiscated  by  the  republic.  Later  loans  have 
been  raised  for  certain  public  works,  &c.,  bringing 
the  total  internal  debt  in  1909  to  over  two  and  a 
half  million  pounds. 

The  external  debt  has  a  more  eventful  history, 
and  dates  from  1820,  when  the  first  moneys  were 
borrowed  by  Colombia  in  London.  £547,783  was 
the  amount  raised,  the  interest  payable  being  at  8 
per  cent,  if  paid  in  London  and  10  per  cent,  if 
paid  in  Colombia.  At  the  division  of  Colombia  in 
1830  the  total  debt  had  increased  to  £9,806,406, 
of  which  £3,180,456  was  for  arrears  of  interest  ; 
the  new  republic  was  adjudged  responsible  in  1834 
for  £2,794,826,  being  £1,888,396  of  the  original 
debt,  with  £906,430  arrears.  In  1840  an  attempt 
was  made  to  put  matters  on  a  regular  footing  by 
the  issue  of  bonds  for  the  outstanding  capital  debt, 
bearing  interest  for  the  first  seven  years  at  2  per 
cent.,  with  a  subsequent  increase  to  6  per  cent, 
at  the  rate  of  ^  per  cent,  annually.  Deferred  bonds 
were  issued  for  the  arrears  bearing  interest  at  i  per 
cent,  for  the  first  year  with  a  ^  per  cent,  annual 
increment  up  to  5  per  cent.  The  total  value  of  bonds 
issued  was  £2,007,159,  the  interest  being  paid  regu- 
larly until  1847,  when  internal  troubles  prevented 
the  payment  of  the  October  dividend. 

After  a  period  of  chaos,  a  further  arrangement 
was  made  in  1859  by  which  the  earlier  ordinary 
bonds  were  to  be  exchanged  for  others  paying  2^ 
per  cent,  for  the  first  year,  and  3  per  cent,  subse- 
quently, while  similar  bonds  were  to  be  issued  for 
16 


242  VENEZUELA 

the  arrears  on  both  ordinary  and  deferred  stock. 
The  deferred  stock  was  to  be  exchanged  for  i^  per 
cent,  bonds.  Fmally  the  bondholders  agreed  to 
accept  3  per  cent,  stock  for  the  arrears  of  interest 
from  1840  to  1847,  with  a  2  per  cent,  cash  payment 
in  September,   i860. 

In  1862  a  £1,000,000  loan  was  arranged  through 
Baring  Brothers,  in  London,  the  issue  to  be  at  63 
per  cent.,  the  bonds  to  bear  interest  at  6  per  cent, 
with  2  per  cent,  annual  redemption.  The  security 
was  55  per  cent,  of  the  La  Guaira  and  Puerto  Cabello 
import  duties  ;  two  years  later  a  further  loan  on 
the  same  terms  was  issued  through  the  General 
Finance  and  Credit  Company  of  London,  the  issue 
price  being  60  per  cent. 

In  1880  the  bonds  and  loans  since  1859  were  con- 
verted into  a  new  consolidated  debt  of  £2,750,000 
at  3  per  cent.  By  resolution  of  August  5,  1887, 
the  diplomatic  debt  (to  France  and  Spain)  was  added 
to  the  National  Debt,  and  these  two  branches  of  the 
external  debt  were  duly  recognised  in  1889,  the 
diplomatic  claims  of  about  £200,000  being  paid 
interest  at  the  rate  of  13  per  cent.  Internal  dis- 
turbances prevented  the  payment  of  interest  in  1892 
and  1893,  but  otherwise  the  amounts  were  regularly 
forthcoming. 

In  1896  a  further  loan  of  £2,000,000  was 
authorised  for  the  payment  of  the  guaranteed  interest 
to  certain  railways,  and  for  acquiring  and  completing 
other  lines.  This  loan,  issued  by  the  Diskonto 
Gesellschaft  in  Berlin  at  80  per  cent.,  bears  interest 
at  5  per  cent.,  but  the  requisite  sum  was  not  paid  by 
Venezuela  either  for  this  or  other  debts  in  1897, 
and  only  partial  payments  were  made  down  to 
August,    1 90 1,    when    they   ceased    altogether. 

In  1903  payments  were  resumed,  and  between  that 
year  and  1907  the  amounts  awarded  to  the  three 
favoured  nations  after  the   1 903  blockade  were  paid 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  VENEZUELA  243 

off,  while  the  sums  due  to  other  nations  were  reduced 
before  1910  from  B  21,000,000  to  B  13,000,000. 
In  1905  also  the  old  English  3  per  cent,  debt 
and  the  1896  loan  were  united  under  the  name 
of  the  Three  Per  Cent.  Diplomatic  Debt.  Between 
1906  and  1910  over  B  33,000,000  of  debt  were 
paid  off,  the  total  at  the  beginning  of  that  year 
being  B  207,995,052.72  or  £8,111,807.  At  the 
close  of  the  year  this  had  been  further  reduced 
to  B  197,807,477.83,  or  £7,714,490.  Nearly 
£400,000  was  thus  paid  off  in  the  first  year  of 
General  Gomez's   presidency. 

•^  The  natural  resources  of  the  country  have  re- 
ceived little  attention  hitherto,  in  comparison  with  the 
abundance  and  extent  of  the  opportunities  for  invest- 
ment of  capital.  The  desultory  attempts  at  develop- 
ment have  in  many  cases  met  with  extraordinary 
success,  the  best  known  instance  being  that  of  the 
Callao  goldmine,  while  the  return  obtained  for 
capital  has  been  very  high  both  for  Venezuelans  and 
foreigners  ;  the  failure  of  at  first  successful  enter- 
prises or  the  failure  of  others  from  the  commence- 
ment has  in  nearly  every  case  been  due  to  lack  of 
foresight,  careless  management,  inadequate  or  in- 
flated capital. 

The  republic  has  been  best  known  to  miners  as  a 
producer  of  the  rarer  metals  and  minerals,  but  the 
more  satisfactory,  if  less  showy,  resources  are  not 
wanting,  though  some,  such  as  the  fine  building  and 
ornamental  stones,  have  been  absolutely  neglected. 

In  many  parts  of  the  Caribbean  Hills  the  Segovia 
Highlands,  the  Andes,  as  well  as  the  Maracaibo  and 
Coro  lowlands,  deposits  of  coal  are  known  to  exist, 
and  have  been  worked  in  a  perfunctory  manner  in 
various  regions.  There  are  ininas  de  carbon  de 
piedra  west  of  Maracaibo,  where  the  coal  appears 
to  be  of  very  good  quality  ;  and  similar  seams  have 
been  extracted  near  Coro  by  shallow  workings.    The 


244  VENEZUELA 

most    extensive    coalmines    are    those    of    Naricual, 
some   fifteen  miles   eastward   of   Barcelona. 

The  ores  of  the  other  great  staple  mineral,  iron, 
are  vaguely  referred  to  in  descriptions  of  various 
imperfectly  known  parts  of  the  country,  but  the  only 
deposit  which  has  hitherto  attracted  the  interest  of 
capitalists  is  that  of  Imataca  on  the  foothills  of  the 
range  of  the  same  name  in  the  Delta-Amacuro 
territory,  on  the  banks  of  the  Cano  Corosimo.  The 
veins  are  said  to  be  numerous  and  extensive,  and 
700  tons  were  shipped  to  Baltimore  in  1901,  when 
the  ore  was  examined  and  described  as  magnetic  with 
60  to  70  per  cent,  of  iron.  The  main  deposit  is 
known  as  Imataca,  but  neighbouring  minas  bear 
the  names  of  Tequendama,  El  Salvador,  Nicaragua, 
La  Magdalena,  El  Encantado,  Costa  Rica,  and 
Yucatan  ;  a  concession  for  the  whole  of  the  known 
ferriferous  area  was  granted  on  August  14th  of  last 
year  (191  i)  to  the  Canadian-Venezuelan  Ore  Com- 
pany,   Limited,   of   Halifax,    N.S. 

Salt  is,  perhaps,  the  most  profitable  source  of 
mineral  wealth,  in  view  of  the  Government  monoply, 
only  certain  persons  being  licensed  to  mine  or  other- 
wise obtain  it.  One  of  the  richest  sources  is  the  salina 
of  Araya,  discovered  by  Niiio  in  1499,  where  there 
is  an  extensive  surface  deposit  of  pure  sodium 
chloride  ;  the  majority  of  these  salinas  are  situated 
on  the  dry,  treeless  stretches  formed  by  ancient 
marine  deposits,  from  which  the  salt  is  obtained  by 
digging  pits,  these  being  filled  with  water  in  such  a 
way  as  to  dissolve  out  the  salt  of  the  surrounding 
sands  and  clays,  and  then  evaporated  to  dryness  in 
the  sun.  Several  thousands  of  tons  are  obtained 
annually  in  this  way  near  Maracaibo,  on  the  Island 
of  Coche,  while  some  is  also  produced  near  Barce- 
lona. The  Coche  salt  is  said  to  be  the  whitest  and 
finest,  but  much  of  the  inferior  yellow  variety  is 
consumed   in   the   Andine   States. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  VENEZUELA  245 

Venezuela  has  long  been  known  as  a  source  of 
asphalt,  and  there  are  indications  of  the  existence 
of  the  parent  mineral,  petroleum,  all  over  the 
northern  and  western  States.  A  few  desultory  and 
ill-advised  attempts  have  been  made  to  develop  the 
petroleum  resources  in  such  places  as  Pedernales,  in 
the  Delta,  and  other  localities  near  the  coast  ;  but 
the  only  satisfactory  work  has  been  carried  out  by 
the  Venezuelan  Compahia  de  Petroleo  del  Tachira, 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  State  of  that  name,  where 
for  some  years  the  oil  was  raised  in  shallow  wells, 
refined,  and  sold  in  the  neighbourhood  for  illuminat- 
ing purposes.  The  more  easily  worked  and 
discovered  asphalt  deposits  have  been  mined  both  on 
Pedernales  Island  and  the  mainland  near  the  Gulf  of 
Paria,  where  the  Bermudez  asphalt  "  lake  "  is  found 
near  the  Guanoco  River  ;  the  area  covered  by  the 
black,  pitch-like  residue  of  petroleum  here  is  said  to 
be  considerably  larger  than  the  famous  "  pitch  lake  " 
of  Trinidad,  but  the  thickness  of  the  deposit  is  less. 
The  total  amount  exported  in  1908  amounted  to 
37,588  metric  tons,  most  of  which  was  from  the 
Bermudez  property,  Pedernales  having  only  been  ex- 
ploited by  a  German  company  for  a  short  time  about 
ten  years  ago. 

The  only  other  non-metallic  mineral  which  has 
been  developed  in  any  way  appears  to  be  sulphur, 
which  occurs  in  considerable  quantities  near  Caru- 
pano,  some  eighteen  kilometres  from  the  port,  in 
the  mountains.  A  German  company  was  formed  in 
1903  with  a  capital  of  2,000,000  marks  to  work  the 
deposit. 

Copper  ores  are  believed  to  exist  at  many  places 
in  the  mountains  of  Venezuela,  and  the  mines  of 
Seboruco,  Bailadores,  and  other  places,  both  in  the 
Andes  and  the  Caribbean  Hills,  were  worked  formerly 
with  profit.  A  rich  deposit  has  recently  been  opened 
up    near    Pao,    in    the    north    part    o'f    the    State    of 


246  VENEZUELA 

Cojedes,  but  the  chief  development  of  this  resource 
of  the  country  has  taken  place  at  Aroa,  in  the  Stat© 
of  Yaracuy.  Here  extensive  plant  was  set  up  some 
twenty  years  ago  by  a  British  company,  and  large 
quantities  of  regulus  were  shipped  from  Tucacas, 
the  maximum  being  38,341  tons  in  1891.  This 
earlier  work  came  to  an  end,  however,  owing  to  the 
fall  in  prices,  and  the  mines  have  only  recently  been 
reopened,  when  on  a  small  capital  they  have 
made  very  large  returns  under  the  able  management 
of  Mr.  Scrutton  ;  the  amount  of  ore  exported  in  1908 
was  3,334  metric  tons,  and  in  1909-10  4,950  metric 
tons,  valued  at  about  £7,000. 

Gold  has  always  since  the  Conquest  been  one  of 
the  principal  attractions  offered  by  Venezuela  to 
prospectors  and  some  few  capitalists,  and  it  must 
be  acknowledged  that  the  evidence  of  the  various 
attempts  proves  that  gold  in  great  quantities  exists 
in  the  Callao  region,  where  the  majority  of  the  mines 
have  been  located.  Lack  of  experience  and  careless- 
ness among  the  managers  of  the  earlier  concerns 
have  led  to  shutting  down  of  mine  after  mine,  when 
once  the  more  accessible  parts  of  the  vein  have 
been  exhausted,  or  it  has  been  lost  by  faulting. 
Among  the  earlier  mines  the  El  Callao  was  perhaps 
the  most  famous,  but  at  all  times  the  mining  industry 
in  this  remote  region  has  been  hampered  by  the  cost 
and  difficulty  of  transport,  a  drawback  only  to  be 
removed  by  the  construction  by  the  Government 
either  of  proper  macadamised  roads  or  of  railways, 
preferably  the  former  to  begin  with.  In  spite  of 
the  various  difficulties,  however,  the  quantity  of 
gold  exported  from  Ciudad  Bolivar  in  1908-9 
was  385"774  kilograms,  and  in  1909-10,  6or974 
kilograms . 

No  visitor  to  Venezuela  who  penetrates  far  enough 
into  the  country  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  Llanos 
can    fail   to    be    impressed   with    the    possibilities    of 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  VENEZUELA  247 

the  country  in  stock-raising  and  exporting,  and  yet 
this  great  area  of  pasturage  supports,  in  proportion 
to  its  extent,  a  mere  handful  of  cattle  and  horses. 
The  quality  of  the  grass  of  the  Llanos  may  be  in- 
ferior to  that  of  the  Argentine  Pampas,  but  even 
such  a  defect,  if  existent,  may  be  improved  in  time, 
and  so  far  no  pedigree  stock  have  ever  been  intro- 
duced, nor  has  the  industry  ever  been  seriously 
handled. 

In  1804,  according  to  Depons,  there  were 
1,470,000  cattle,  horses,  and  mules  on  the  Llanos, 
and  by  1812  the  total  number  had  increased  to 
4,500,000  ;  but  during  the  wars  of  independence, 
owing  to  the  depredations  by  the  opposing  armies, 
the  number  was  greatly  decreased,  and  in  1839  was 
still  only  a  little  over  2,000,000.  In  the  meantime, 
however,  the  excellent  qualities  of  the  Barquisimeto 
tableland  and  the  Coro  and  Maracaibo  lowlands  for 
breeding  goats  had  been  discovered,  and  the  export 
of  goats'  horns  and  hides  has  been  continuously  an 
important  item  in  the  trade  of  Western  Venezuela. 
In  1888  the  number  of  heads  of  stock  on  the  Llanos 
had  increased  to  8,500,000,  and  at  that  period  many 
were  exported  to  the  other  States  and  islands  of 
America,  a  few  even  to  the  United  States.  Ten  years 
later  revolutions  and  counter-revolutions  had 
decreased  the   number  to    2,000,000. 

The  export  trade  in  live  stock  has  never  attained 
very  great  dimensions,  and  in  1909-10  the  value  was 
£40,374,  while  the  always  more  important  item  of 
hides,  horns,  and  hoofs  of  cattle  and  goats  was  valued 
at  over  £320,000.  The  establishment  of  the  Vene- 
zuelan Meat  Products  Syndicate  works  for  shipping 
frozen  meat  from  Puerto  Cabello  should  do  much 
to  encourage  an  industry  as  yet  in  its  infancy  and 
yet  of  incalculable  interest  to  the  country,  once 
properly  developed. 

As  is  the  case  with  other  resources,   of  the  many 


248  VENEZUELA 

agricultural  products  of  Venezuela  only  a  minority 
have  been  energetically  developed,  in  some  degree 
on  account  of  lack  of  population  to  collect  the  natural 
fruits  in  such  prolific  regions  as  Guayana,  but  also 
on  account  of  failure  to  appreciate  the  natural  advan- 
tage of  the  many  climates  to  be  found  within  the 
northern  part  of  the  country,  where  may  be  grown, 
not  only  the  rare  fruits  of  the  tropics  but  the,  to 
many,  more  pleasant  fruits  and  flowers  of  the  cooler 
zones. 

The  three  cultivated  plants  which  have  multiplied 
sufficiently  to  form  the  basis  of  considerable  indus- 
tries are  coffee,  cacao,  and  sugar-cane.  Of  these 
coffee  was  first  introduced  from  the  West  Indian 
Islands  towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  the  plantations  now  cover  much  of  the  cultivated 
land  of  the  northern  hills.  The  bushes  grow  any- 
where between  elevations  of  500  and  2,000  metres, 
but  the  region  immediately  below  the  1,000-metre 
line  is  found  to  be  the  best  ;  and  at  this  elevation 
flourishing  plantations  are  to  \>e  found  in  the  central 
part  of  the  Coastal  Cordillera,  and  in  the  Andes  ;  the 
Carabobo  and  Segovia  coffees  are  not  so  good,  how- 
ever, as  those  grov^m  elsewhere.  The  plants  are 
set  from  1,600  to  1,900  to  the  hectare,  each  when 
matured  producing  ^  to  ^  lb.  annually,  or  400  to 
950  lbs.  per  hectare,  the  life  of  each  bush  being 
taken  as  about  fifty  years.  The  value  of  the 
coffee  exported  in  the  year  1909-10  was  nearly 
£1,500,000. 

Cacao  is  indigenous  to  Venezuela,  and  the  wild 
trees  abound  in  the  forests  of  Guayana.  Before 
the  advent  of  Europeans  it  is  believed  that  no  cul- 
tivation of  cacao  was  carried  on,  but  the  plantations 
of  Venezuela  produce  some  8,000  tons  annually  at  the 
present  time,  of  which  some  is  renowned  above  all 
other  cocoa  of  the  world.  The  chief  cocoa  districts 
are    the    neighbourhood    of    Caracas,    parts    of    the 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  VENEZUELA  249 

Orinoco  Delta,  and  the  Maracaibo  Lake  region.  In 
the  financial  year  1909-10  the  total  exports  were 
valued  at  about   £700,000. 

Sugar  can  be  grown  anywhere  in  Northern  Vene- 
zuela, except  on  the  Llanos  and  in  the  higher 
mountains,  or  where,  as  near  Barquisimeto  or  Coro, 
the  atmosphere  is  too  dry.  In  addition  to  the  native 
or  Creole  sugar,  there  are  three  varieties  from  the 
East  known  as  Otahiti,  Batavia,  and  Selangor  cane. 
From  the  juice  of  these  sugars  crude  {papelon)  and 
refined  iazucar),  with  alcohol  {aguardiente)  and  rum 
are  manufactured,  the  greater  part  of  the  crop  being 
utilised  in  distilleries.  Most  of  the  sugar  comes 
from  the  Maracaibo  and  Caracas  districts,  but  the 
product  is  for  the  most  part  consumed  in  the 
country,  as  are  the  million  or  so  bottles  of  alcohol. 
The  exports  for    1909-10  amounted  to  £20,000. 

Tobacco  can  be  grown  all  through  the  foothills 
of  the  Cordilleras,  but  the  only  important  centres 
arc  the  upland  valleys  south  of  Cumana,  in  the  east, 
and  near  Capatarida,  in  the  State  of  Falcon  ;  the 
latter  is  said  to  be  the  best,  and  considerable  quan-^ 
titles  of  the  leaf  are  sent  to  Havana.  Cotton  also 
grows  wild  along  the  dry  northern  coast,  and  has 
been  cultivated  to  some  extent,  particularly  after  the 
American  Civil  War  ;  at  the  close  of  the  last  century 
the  exports  amounted  to  450  tons,  but  in  1909-10 
only  63  tons  were  shipped,  the  greater  part  of  the 
native  product  being  used  in  the  Valencia  mills.  Of 
the  remaining  agricultural  produce  most  is  consumed 
in  the  country,  the  principal  plants  being  maize, 
manioc  (of  which  some  is  exported),  and  (in  the 
Andes)  wheat. 

Of  the  wild  products  rubber  has  been  known  to 
occur  in  Guayana  since  1758,  and  the  latter  has  been 
collected  since  i860  in  a  desultory  manner  by  indi- 
vidual prospectors  ;  some  is  also  produced  in  the 
forests    of    Zulia,    but    the    largest    quantity    passes 


250  VENEZUELA 

through  Ciudaci  Bolivar,  which  exported  some 
440,000  lbs.  of  caoutchouc  in  1909-10,  valued  at 
over  £116,000.  The  tonka-beans,  balata-gum  (see 
p.  315),  sernambi,  and  copaiba-balsam  of  Guayana 
are  also  collected  and  exported,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  many  valuable  timbers,  with  which  little  is  done 
as  yet,  while  coconuts  have  their  place  among  the 
minor  agricultural  products  of  the  country. 

The  fisheries  of  Venezuela,  if  these  can  be  con- 
sidered as  existent,  are  of  very  slight  importance, 
and  even  the  pearling-grounds  have  comparatively 
little  value.  These  are  more  or  less  controlled  by 
the  Government,  and  unlimited  concessions  have  been 
granted  to  companies  from  time  to  time,  a  system 
not  calculated  to  secure  the  greatest  possible  length 
of  Jife  for  this  national  asset.  The  value  of  the 
stones  exported  in   1909-10  was  about  £21,000. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  industries  of  Venezuela  are 
in  their  infancy,  and  have  as  yet  no  international 
importance,  and  apparently  little  for  the  country 
itself,  in  spite  of  the  enormous  protective  duties  on 
all  kinds  of  manufactures.  Chocolate  of  good  quality 
is  made  in  Caracas,  some  45,000  lbs.  being  turned 
out  by  "  La  India,"  but  the  high-priced  imported 
article  is  more  sought  after. 

Cotton  goods  are  manufactured  in  Valencia,  drills, 
flannelette,  canvas,  &c.,  being  the  principal  varieties, 
largely  made  of  the  local  produce.  In  spite  of  the 
great  grazing-grounds  of  Venezuela  very  little  butter 
is  made  in  the  country,  and  the  inhabitants  seem 
here  also  to  prefer  the  inferior  but  much  more  ex- 
pensive imported  (tinned)  variety.  An  important 
industry  throughout  Northern  Venezuela  is  that  of 
tanning,  dividive  and  mangrove  bark  being  the  prin- 
cipal materials  used  ;  the  leather  is  used  chiefly  for 
boots  and  saddles. 

Matches  are  a  Government  monopoly,  and  are 
manufactured     in     Cardcas.       The     glass     industry. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  VENEZUELA  251 

heavily  protected  though  it  is,  does  not  seem  to  have 
acquired  any  great  importance  since  its  inception 
in  1906,  though  paper  (chiefly  of  inferior  quality) 
has   been  manufactured  since    1897. 

The  two  most  profitable  local  industries  are  the 
cigarette  factories  and  breweries  ;  the  former,  a 
heavily  protected  monopoly,  exists  in  many  parts  of 
the  republic,  though  the  largest  output  is  from  the 
Federal  District.  The  Cerveceria  Nacional  was 
established  in  Caracas  in  1894,  with  a  capital  of 
B  600,000,  increased  in  1901  to  B  2,500,000  ;  it  has 
flourished  continuously,  and  bought  up  the  smaller 
rival  breweries  of  Valencia  and  Puerto  Cabello. 
There  is  also  a  brewery  in  Maracaibo,  and  very 
little  beer  is  imported  into  Venezuela. 

It  is,  perhaps,  early  yet  to  look  for  development 
in  the  arts  or  sciences  in  Venezuela,  but  there  have 
been  one  or  two  painters  of  note  ;  and  of  a  vast 
output  of  flowery  writing  some  is  worthy  of  the  name 
of  literature.  In  this  connection  the  Academy  and 
the  Academy  of  History,  with  the  museum  and  library 
in  Caracas,   deserve  honourable  mention. 

There  are  two  Universities,  as  we  have  seen,  that 
of  Caracas  dating  from  1725,  that  of  Merida  from 
1810  ;  in  both  the  best  faculties  are  those  of  medi- 
cine and  law,  few  of  the  many  "  doctors  "  in  the 
country  having  any  knowledge  of  other  branches. 

Although  after  the  separation  from  Colombia  steps 
were  taken  to  have  a  survey  made  of  the  republic, 
the  first  preliminary  studies  of  Codazzi  have  remained 
till  very  recently  all  that  have  been  done.  Since 
1907,  however,  there  has  been  a  Commission,  under 
the  control  of  the  War  Department,  which  is  slowly 
collecting  material  for  a  map  of  the  whole  country, 
but  so  far  only  a  small  area  has  been  completed. 


CHAPTER   XVII 

COMMUNICATIONS  AND   TRANSPORT 

Lack  of  adequate  means — Postal  service— A  small  but  growing 
system — Methods  of  carriage — Unusual  uses  of  mailbags — 
Telegraphs — Telephones— Railways — Bolivar  Railway — Later 
lines — Tramways — Abundant  water-power — "  Roads  " — Carrc- 
/^ras  — Bridle-paths  — P.W.D.  — Waterways  — Less  than  they 
seem  —  Importance — The  Orinoco  —  Ports — Shipping — Steam- 
ship lines. 

Those  v^^ho  know  something  of  Venezuela  away  from 
the  few  ports  and  towns  generally  visited  by 
Europeans  will  doubtless  consider  the  title  of  this 
chapter  a  misnomer.  Indeed,  it  is  the  lack  of 
adequate  means  of  communication  between  the 
different  parts  of  the  republic  which  hinders  more 
than  any  single  cause  its  progress  and  development. 
Revolutions  and  internal  dissensions  have  been  the 
immediate  trouble,  but  these,  if  not  caused,  are  at 
least  fostered,  by  the  absence  of  better  roads  than 
bridle-paths  and  of  more  permanent  lines  of  com- 
munication than  single  telegraph  wires  ;  though  in 
justice  it  must  be  said  that  in  times  of  peace  the 
last-named  service  is  far  ahead  of  the  other  branches. 

Venezuela  is  included  in  the  Postal  Union,  though 
owing  partly  to  the  custom  of  "  farming  "  the  stamps, 
the  cost  of  transmission  of  letters  in  the  interior  is 
twopence-halfpenny  and  from  Venezuela  to  foreign 
countries   fivepence. 

The  Post  Office  is  considered  as  a  branch  of  the 

2.52 


COMMUNICATIONS— TRANSPORT     253 

Ministry  of  National  Development,  and  employed  358 
officials  in  1909.  The  G.P.O.  in  Caracas  is  well 
administered,  and  from  this  the  quality  of  the  service 
ranges  through  the  principal  offices  of  each  State 
to  the  two  hundred  rural  offices  scattered  up  and 
down  the  more  frequented  parts  of  the  republic.  More 
and  more  money  is  being  spent  annually  in  an 
endeavour  to  make  the  service  thoroughly  efficient, 
and  in  1908-9  the  expenditure  under  this  head  was 
B  848,444,  or  £33,602.  In  1908  the  number  of 
interior  postal  packets  carried  was  about  4,500,000, 
2,750,000  letters  were  received  from,  or  dispatched 
to,  foreign  countries,  with  18,500  parcels;  the 
number  of  letters  dispatched  abroad  was  rather 
smaller.  The  comparison  between  4,500,000  and 
4,500,000,000,  the  number  of  letters  handled  by  our 
own  Post  Office  some  years  back,  makes  the  Vene- 
zuelan service  seem  insignificant,  but  at  least  it  exists 
and  is  capable  of  expansion  to  an  efficient  system 
of  communication  throughout  the  country. 

In  the  Centra  the  mails  are,  of  course,  carried 
by  train  between  the  big  towns,  and  the  deliveries 
are  fairly  punctual,  while  the  service  to  the  seaports 
is  sufficiently  good  ;  elsewhere,  however,  the  mail- 
trains  of  mules  wander  casually  along  the  "  roads," 
the  postbags  often  forming  only  an  insignificant  part 
of  the  loads  ;  in  more  outlying  parts  still  the  mails 
are  carried  on  foot.  On  one  occasion  the  author 
with  a  friend  was  guided  along  about  thirty  miles 
of  obscure  track  by  the  "  postman  "  (aged  sixteen), 
who  had  one  U.S.A.  mailbag,  which  during  part 
of  the  journey  was  occupied  jointly  by  the  letters 
and  tins  of  sardines  and  other  provisions  for  the 
long  tramp  ;  the  letters  did  not  appear  to  suffer 
greatly,  but  this  familiar  use  of  a  mailbag  of  a 
foreign  Government  seemed  somewhat  unorthodox, 
even  though  it  be  less  so  than  the  application  of 
the    striped   remains    to    sail-patching,    many    of    the 


254  VENEZUELA 

small  sloops  and  goletas  being  wafted  on  their  way 
by  means  of  fragments  of  mailbags,  generally  Uncle 
Sam's. 

But  though  the  postal  service  outside  the  principal 
towns  and  most  populous  districts  is  very  primitive, 
the  telegraph  service,  with  its  cheap  rates,  is  well 
managed  and  efficient. 

The  first  telegraph  line  in  the  country  was  that 
between  La  Guaira  and  Caracas,  opened  in  1856; 
in  1909  there  were  7,839  kilometres  of  wires  in  the 
country  and  179  offices,  with  a  staff  of  800  men. 
In  the  financial  year  1908-9  the  cost  of  the  service 
was  B  2,041,385,  or  £80,847,  and  394,792  messages 
were  sent  in  1908,  at  a  total  charge  of  B  936,657 
(£36,429)  ;    more  than  half  of  these  were  official. 

In  addition  to  the  Government  lines  there  are  a 
few  private  wires  along  the  railways,  and  telegraphic 
communication  with  the  outside  world  is  carried  on 
by  means  of  the  French  cable,  which  runs  from  La 
Guaira  to  Curasao. 

Such  telephone  lines  as  exist  are  mainly  in  the 
hands  of  private  companies  or  individuals,  and  only 
10  of  the  120  lines  existing  are  owned  by  the  State. 
The  British  Telephone  Company  in  Caracas  has  a 
very  efficient  exchange  there  and  trunk  lines  to  the 
chief  towTis  of  the  Centra,  and  also  a  telephone 
service  in  Ciudad  Bolivar. 

/  Means  of  transport  are  in  much  the  same  con- 
dition as  lines  of  comjnunication — that  is  to  say,  there 
is  in  existence  the  nucleus  of  a  complete  system  j 
but  "  the  end  is  not  yet,"  and  to-day  one  must  be 
prepared  for  anything  in  travelling  over  wide  areas 
in  Venezuela. 

In  and  around  Caracas,  and  between  most  of  the 
large  towns  of  the  Centra,  one  may  travel  with 
as  much  ease  and  comfort  as  in  parts  of  Europe, 
and  better  than  on  a  certain  line  running  out  of 
London,   but  beyond,   though  there  may   be   in  some 


COMMUNICATIONS— TRANSPORT     255 

directions  roads  on  which  carts  can  be  used,  one  is 
more  often  reduced  to  the  means  of  locomotion  of 
sixteenth-century  England.  Outside  the  Centra 
there  are  a  few  comparatively  short  lines,  which  can 
hardly  be  regarded  as  forming  part  of  the  railway 
system  of  Venezuela,  though  they  may  one  day 
become  part  of  it. 

There  are  in  all  eleven  railways  in  the  country, 
but  one  has  practically  ceased  to  exist,  and  it  is 
a  long  time  since  any  train  ran  on  it.  The  total 
number  of  passengers  carried  in  1908  was  413,000, 
and  nearly   184,000  tons  of  freight. 

Of  the  eleven  lines  the  oldest,  strangely  enough, 
is  not  in  the  Centra,  though,  being  connected  with 
the  main  system  by  steamer,  it  may  be  considered  as 
part  of  it.  This  is  the  Bolivar  Railway,  which  com- 
menced in  1873  as  a  line  from  Tucacas  to  the  copper- 
mines  of  Aroa,  and  was  subsequently  extended  to 
Barquisimeto.  It  has  a  24-inch  gauge,  and  its 
present  length  is  17 6" 5  kilometres.  The  La  Ceiba 
line  was  authorised  in  1880,  and  has  a  "9 1 -metre 
gauge,  with  a  present  length  of  8r5  kilometres; 
the  same  year  saw  the  commencement  of  the  La 
Guaira-Caracas  Line,  already  described  in  an  earlier 
chapter.  Two  years  later  a  i •07-metre  line  was 
commenced  from  the  port  of  Guanta  to  Barcelona 
and  the  Naricual  coalmines.  In  1884  the  Maiquetia- 
Macuto  street  railway  was  built  to  afford  easy 
communication  with  the  chief  watering-place  of 
Venezuela  ;  it  has  the  same  gauge  (-91  metre)  as 
the  Caracas  line  and  is  8  kilometres  in  length.  The 
railway  from  Carenero  to  Rio  Chico  was  commenced 
in  1884,  and  is  now  50  kilometres  long,  but,  like  the 
La  Ceiba  line,  this  is  not  part  of  the  central  system. 
The  Central  Railway,  originally  planned  in  1885  to 
connect  Caracas  and  Valencia  by  a  circuitous  route, 
never  accomplished  that  end,  and  merely  affords  a 
means   of  communication   between   Caracas   and  the 


256  VENEZUELA 

towns  of  Miranda,  and  is  now  42  kilometres  in  length, 
with  a  gauge  of  107  metre.  The  Puerto  Cabello 
and  Valencia  line  was  commenced  in  the  same  year 
and  is  54  kilometres  long,  while  the  Gran  Ferrocarril 
de  Venezuela,  the  German  line,  was  contracted  for 
in  1888,  and  at  one  and  the  same  time  obviated 
the  extension  of  the  Central,  as  originally  planned, 
and  completed  the  nucleus  railway  system  of  Central 
Venezuela  as  it  exists  to-day.  It  has  a  total  length  of 
179  kilometres.  The  short  line  connecting  Coro  and 
La  Vela  was  built  in  1893,  and  is,  like  the  Tachira 
line,  commenced  at  the  same  time,  owned  in  the 
country  ;  the  latter  has  a  length  to-day  of 
I  1 4"  5  kilometres  and  is  of  the  standard  Venezuelan 
gauge,  I  07  metre.  The  Santa  Barbara-El  Vigia 
line  was  the  last  to  be  commenced  (1896),  but  it 
has  already  fallen  into  disrepair,  and  of  the  60  kilo- 
metres  little,   if  any,  remains   in  usable  condition. 

In  Caracas  a  system  of  electric  tramways  not  only 
provides  rapid  transit  from  one  part  of  the  city  to 
the  other  but  also  runs  out  southwards  to  the  suburb 
of  El  Valle.  There  are  also  lines  of  varying  motive 
power  and  efficiency  in  Valencia,  Puerto  Cabello, 
Maracaibo,  Ciudad  Bolivar,  Barquisimeto,  Carupano, 
and  Cumana.  In  view  of  the  quantity  of  available 
water-power  in  the  mountain  districts  of  Venezuela, 
one  imagines  that  electric  traction  will  one  day  be 
very  widely  used,  but,  like  many  of  the  possibilities 
of  Venezuela,  this  lies  almost  entirely  in  the  future. 
-  Descending  to  the  less  rapid  methods  of  travelling 
by  road,  we  find  the  whole  country  is  in  much  the 
same  condition  as  England  or  Western  Europe  four 
hundred  years  ago,  for,  with  the  exception  of  some 
ten  carreteras  of  very  indifferent  quality,  the  roads 
of  Venezuela  are  bridle-paths,  and  occasionally  hardly 
worthy  even   of   that  title. 

Such  cart-roads  as  there  are  have  to  some  extent 
been   engineered,   but  none  are  macadamised.      The 


COUNI'RV    COACH  :      BARQUISIMETO. 


Lh    ii^<\A\  AK    K All. WAV. 


COMMUNICATIONS  -TRANSPORT     257 

best  is  that  from  La  Guaira  to  Caracas,  35*4  kilo- 
metres long,  but  even  this  is  little  used  by  wheel 
traffic.  One  of  the  longest  is  the  high-road  from 
Caracas  to  Valencia,  1 68  kilometres,  but  this  is  ex- 
ceeded by  that  connecting  San  Felix,  on  the  Orinoco, 
with  Guasipati,  which  has  a  length  of  2 1 9  kilometres, 
with  a  2  5 -kilometre  extension  to  Callao  ;  the  whole 
road  is  in  a  fearfully  bad  state  in  the  rains, 
however,  as  to  which  matter  enough  has  been  said  in 
Chapter  XIV.  From  Caracas  another  main  road  goes 
eastward  70  kilometres  down  the  Guaire  valley 
to  Santa  Lucia,  and  yet  another  south-east  to  Charal- 
lave,  47  kilometres  away.  From  Valencia,  also,  cart- 
roads  radiate  to  Puerto  Cabello  (70  kilometres),  to 
Nirgua  (90  kilometres),  to  Giiigiie  for  Villa  de  Cura 
(34  kilometres),  and  to  San  Carlos   (99  kilometres). 

There  are  also  cart-roads  under  construction  from 
Puerto  Cabello  to  San  Felipe,  between  Uraca  and 
San  Cristobal,  and  one  or  two  in  other  parts  of  the 
Andes. 

Among  the  bridle-paths  there  are  a  few  with 
cobble-paved  surfaces,  dating  back  to  early  colonial 
times,  but  these  have  fallen  into  disrepair,  and  in 
Guayana  they  have  been  disused  for  so  long  that 
their  whereabouts  is  often  unknown,  save  where  the 
Indian  trails  cross  or  follow  a  bit  of  the  old  paving 
here  and  there.  For  the  rest  the  way  is  generally 
passable,  but  sometimes  up  to  the  animal's  belly  in 
mud  ;  here  there  are  bridges  over  the  mountain 
torrents,  there  none  ;  the  deeper  streams  may  have 
ferries,  but  to  be  held  up  by  an  extra  heavy  fall  of 
rain  is  no  uncommon  event.  The  Government  spent 
nearly  £80,000  on  the  Public  Works  Department  in 
1908-9,  but  since  not  all  even  of  this  small  sum  is 
devoted  to  actual  road-making  or  other  improvements, 
it  will  be  seen  that  things  are  being  only  gradually 
improved  ;  and  it  may  be  long  yet  before  the  asphalt 
and  rock  of  the  country  are  applied  to  the  betterment 
17 


258  VENEZUELA 

of  the  uninspiring  yet  all-important  roadways,  at 
once  one  of  the  simplest  and  one  of  the  most 
efficient  methods  of  developing  the  nation's  natural 
resources. 

The  waterways  of  Venezuela,  numerous  and  general 
as  they  appear  on  the  map,  are  singularly  disappoint- 
ing on  closer  investigation.  The  great  Orinoco  is 
a  fine  natural  highway,  it  is  true,  as  far  as  Pericos, 
some  600  miles  from  the  mouth,  but  here  the  river  is 
broken  by  the  rapids  of  Atures  and  beyond  by  those 
of  Maipures,  and  it  is  impossible  for  large  boats  to 
pass  through  to  the  upper  river.  The  Apure,  Arauca, 
and  Meta  are,  of  course,  useful  means  of  communica- 
tion with  the  Colombian  border  regions  and  the  south- 
western Llanos,  but  the  numerous  tributaries  on  the 
north  side  are  generally  too  variable  in  depth  for 
permanent  traffic,  and  those  on  the  south,  as  we 
have  seen,  are  broken  up  by  rapids  for  practically 
their  whole  length. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  we  take  the  positive  value  of 
the  river  highways,  rather  than  their  actual  extent  as 
compared  with  the  number  of  streams  indicated  on 
a  map,  we  can  see  that  they  are  of  considerable  im- 
portance ;  the  rivers  of  Guayana  and  of  the  eastern 
Llanos  may  be  of  little  use  for  large  boats,  but  the 
Orinoco  forms  a  great  central  artery,  from  which 
roads,  and  perhaps  eventually  railways,  can  div^erge 
to  the  limits  of  the  basin.  Some  of  the  Llano  tribu- 
taries, too,  are  navigable  for  steamers,  and  thus  the 
State  of  Apure  is  now  kept  in  communication  with 
the  outside  world — all  this  without  speaking  of  the 
great  advantage  accruing  to  the  State  of  Zulia  from 
its  central  lake,  with  its  many  tributary  navigable 
rivers,  along  which  large  boats  can  travel  through- 
out the  greater  part  of  the  State,  and  on  to  the 
boundaries  of  those  of  the  Andes,  as  well  as  into 
the  neighbouring  republic  of  Colombia.  Along  most 
of    these   natural   and   easily   utilised    lines    of   com- 


COMMUNICATIONS— TRANSPORT     259 

munication  there  are  already  services  of  steamers — 
nothing  very  advanced,  but  still  a  beginning. 

There  are  twelve  ports  with  custom-houses  for 
trade  and  communication  with  the  outside  world,  but 
that  number  includes  the  new  one  of  Imataca,  on 
the  Caiio  Corosimo,  in  the  Delta  territory,  estab- 
lished August  14,  1 9 1 1 .  Puerto  Cabello  ranks  first 
for  number  of  vessels,  La  Guaira  second,  and  Caru- 
pano  third  ;  all,  except  Caiio  Colorado,  have  regular 
wharves,  adequate  custom-houses,  &c.  The  total 
number  of  vessels  received  in  the  year  1 909  was 
645,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  937,689,  of  which 
two-thirds  were  steam-propelled.  It  is  interesting 
to  compare  the  standing  of  the  various  countries  in 
tonnage  of  steamships,  as  given  in  the  following 
table  :— 


Nationality. 

Tonnage. 

Number  of  Vessels. 
I 

Dutch 

212,375 

1             ^§^ 

United  States  of  America     . 

155.269 

:             85 

British 

149.565 

!        67 

French  

149,114 

1        36 

German            

106,257 

S3 

ItaUan 

71,760 

21 

Spanish             

43,7«5 

13 

Norwegian 

30,978 

42 

Venezuelan      

10,651 

158 

Swedish            

4,808 

7 

Russian            

2,346 

7 

Danish 

778 

3 

Colombian       

3 

1             2 

Thus  Holland  is  far  ahead  in  point  of  numbers, 
though  by  no  means  first  in  trade,  while  France  comes 
above  Germany,  even  though  the  imports  from  the 
latter  are  much  greater.  The  small  number  of 
Spanish  vessels  speaks  eloquently  as  to  the  fitness 
of  Spain  to  retain  her  South  American  colonies  by 
force  after  her  decline. 


260 


VENEZUELA 


Finally,  for  communication  with  the  outside  world, 
these  are  the  following  chief  lines  and  the  ports  they 
run  to  : — 


Nationality. 

Line. 

Ports. 

Dutch 

KoningHjke  W.  I. 
Mail 

Amsterdam  to  Carupano,  Cu- 
mana,  Guanta,  La  Guaira, 
Puerto  Cabello,  and  Curasao 

U.S.A.       ... 

Red  "  D  " 

New  York  to  La  Guaira,  Puerto 
Cabello,  Curasao,  and  Mara- 
caibo 

British 

R.M.S.P. 

Puerto  Cabello  to  Southampton 
(when  so  announced) 

British       ... 

Harrison 

Liverpool  to  La  Guaira  and 
Puerto  Cabello 

British      ... 

Leyland 

The  same 

French     ... 

Cie.  Gen.  Trans- 
atlantique. 

Bordeaux  to  Carupano,  Pampa- 
tar,  La  Guaira,  and  Puerto 
Cabello 

German    ... 

Hamburg-Amerika. 

Hamburg  to  Cumana  (Puerto 
Sucre),  Pampatar,  Guanta,  La 
Guaira,  and  Puerto  Cabello 

Itahan 

La  Veloce 

Geneva  to  La  Guaira  and  Puerto 
Cabello 

Spanish     ... 

Cia.  Transatlantica 
Espanola 

Barcelona  to  La  Guaira  and 
Puerto  Cabello 

Venezuelan 

"  Nacional " 

Maracaibo,  via  all  ports  except 
Cristobal,  Colon,  and  Caho 
Colorado,  to  Ciudad  Bolivar 

The  most  usual  route  from  England  is  of  course 
via  Trinidad,  travelling  to  Port-of-Spain  by  the 
R.M.S.P.  and  on  by  Dutch,  French,  or  other  line  to 
La  Guaira  ;  the  Red  "  D  "  route,  via  New  York,  may 
be  quicker,  if  other  services  do  not  suit,  but  it  is 
less  pleasant,  owing  to  the  longer  time  spent  in 
northern   (and  stormy)  latitudes. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

THE   FUTURE   OF  VENEZUELA 

A  great  opportunity — The  Panama  Canal — The  Llanos — Petroleum- 
fields  —  Liquid  fuel  —  Position  of  Venezuela  —  Guayana — 
Possibilities — Colonisation — Government — The  military-political 
class — The  disgrace  of  labour — Better  conditions — Vargas — 
The  "  Matos  "  revolution — General  Gomez — Hopes  to  be  realised 
— Honesty  and  justice  —  Development  —  Roads  —  Railways — 
Education— Consular  service — Great  Britain's  trade  with  Vene- 
zuela— A  poor  third — British  capital — The  people's  responsi- 
bility— An  opportunity. 

What  will  be  the  condition  of  Venezuela  twenty  or 
thirty  years  hence?  The  question  is  one  to  which  no 
exact  answer  can  be  given,  for  it  involves  the  con- 
sideration of  so  many  variable  factors.  We  rnay, 
however,  safely  say  that  in  that  period  there  will  be 
either  no  advance  or  a  very  great  one  ;  in  the  latter 
case,  the  country  may  well  rival  Argentine  in  world- 
importance. 

The  resources  to  some  of  which  increased  pros- 
perity will  be  due  have  already  been  described  in 
the  body  of  this  volume,  but  we  can  here  pass  in 
review  the  chief  national  assets,  and  glance  also 
at  the  methods  which  will  have  to  be  adopted  to 
secure  the  right  atmosphere  for  the  full  develop- 
ment of  the  country. 

In  doing  this,  we  must  take  into  account  one  ex- 
ternal event  which  may  be  expected  to  occur  within 
the  next  two  years,  namely,  the  opening  of  the  Panama 
Canal,  for  it  will  give  Venezuela  an  opportunity  such 


262  VENEZUELA 

as  she  has  never  before  had  of  developing  her  foreign 
trade  by  leaps  and  bounds.  Many  of  her  products 
are  common  to  other  countries  equally  well  situated 
for  taking  advantage  of  the  increasing  shipping 
facilities  afforded  by  the  "  Ditch,"  but  two  of  her 
undeveloped  assets  in  respect  of  which  she  enjoys 
exceptional  conditions  are  found  in  the  great  natural 
g'razing-grounds  and  the  subterranean  stores  of 
petroleum  ;  the  latter  are  as  yet  untried,  but  assum- 
ing that  they  fulfil  their  promise,  Venezuela  can 
supply  equally  well  to  the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic 
food  and  fuel — i.e.,  not  luxuries  but  necessities. 

The  area  of  the  Llanos  has  been  estimated  as 
over  100,000  square  miles,  so  that  Venezuela  has 
here  a  space  large  enough  to  support  a  vast  herd 
of  cattle.  Their  markets,  it  is  true,  will  still  lie 
rather  in  the  populous  countries  of  Europe  than  in 
any  of  those  brought  nearer  by  the  canal  ;  but  in- 
creased shipping  facilities  should  encourage  the 
improvement  of  stock  and  the  development  of  the 
industry  along  lines  which  will  make  the  country  of 
real  international  importance,  for  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  Venezuela  is  a  week  nearer  to  Europe 
than  the  other  great  meat-exporting  country  of  the 
South,  Argentina. 

The  oil  resources  of  Venezuela  do  not  possess  any 
unique  qualities  either  from  a  strategic  or  a  topo- 
graphical point  of  view  ;  in  other  words,  their 
product  is  not  the  nearest  to  the  line  of  steam- 
traffic  to  the  Isthmus,  nor  are  the  fields  so  situated 
in  the  country  that  they  could  be  worked  with  greater 
ease  than,  for  instance,  those  of  Trinidad  or  Peru. 

We  must  digress  for  a  moment  to  notice  'more 
fully  the  importance  of  a  strategic  position,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  commerce,  not  of  war.  It  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  one  of  the  greatest  hindrances 
to  a  more  general  adoption  of  liquid  fuel,  apart 
from  the  question  of  permanence  of  supplies,  is  the 


THE    FUTURE    OF    VENEZUELA     263 

absence  of  regular  oiling-stations,  so  that  steamers 
burning  petroleum  are  handicapped  as  to  freedom 
of  movement  in  a  way  in  which  coal-burning  boats 
are  not. 

Now  let  us  glance  once  more  at  Venezuela's 
position,  from  the  point  of  view  of  strategic  position  ; 
the  topography  of  the  country  and  the  present  means 
of  communication  will  probably  render  it  more  easy 
to  develop  these  oil-fields  than  those  of  the  neigh- 
bouring republic  of  Colombia,  though  the  latter  lie 
nearer  to  the  canal-zone  ;  if  this  be  so,  Venezuela 
and  Trinidad  may  be  considered  together  as  the 
largest  area  of  oil-producing  country  situated  in  such 
proximity  to  the  canal  as  to  make  it  possible  for 
vessels  to  replenish  their  stores  of  fuel  conveniently. 
Whether  the  oil  is  taken  on  board  in  Trinidad,  at 
one  of  the  Venezuelan  ports,  or  at  Colon,  the  advan- 
tageous position  of  the  fields  is  equally  clear  for 
European  boats,  which  would  then,  on  this  sea-route, 
be  in  a  position  almost  analogous  to  the  oil-burning 
boats  between  Japan  and  San  Francisco,  where  they 
are  in  the  Calif ornian  fuel-oil  region. 

There  seems  reason  to  suppose  that  Venezuela  has 
extensive  areas  producing  oil  of  the  type  requisite, 
and  therefore  her  future  importance  depends  largely 
upon  the  energy  with  which  she  discovers  or 
encourages  others  to  discover  where  and  how  the 
mineral  can  be  most  profitably  won. 

Nor  must  the  possibilities  of  Guayana  be  ignored 
in  this  general  summary,  for  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  some  of  the  larger  exports  given  in 
Appendix  B  is  shipped  through  Ciudad  Bolivar  ; 
these  are  mainly,  of  course,  forest  products  and  gold, 
but  there  are  great  possibilities  of  increased  output 
of  both  these,  with  the  development  of  more  per- 
manent agricultural  and  pastoral  resources  in  the 
woods  and  savannahs  of  southern  Venezuela.  The 
introduction  of  industrial  colonists  has,  as   we  have 


264  VENEZUELA 

seen,  been  planned  already,  and  much  may  come 
of  the  wise  prosecution  of  such  a  scheme. 

Under  these  three  heads  we  have  the  undeveloped 
resources  of  Venezuela,  but  there  remains  a  long 
list  of  products  exported,  some  of  which  already 
aggregate  a  considerable  value,  while  others  are 
capable  of  great  increase.  There  is  no  necessity  to 
deal  with  these  various  products  in  detail  here,  since 
a  glance  at  the  table  in  Appendix  B  will  show  their 
relative  importance.  The  question  remains,  What  is 
needed  that  Venezuela's  trade  may  be  free  to  expand 
and  may  be  assisted  in  that  expansion  by  those  in 
authority? 

First  and  foremost,  there  is  the  character  of  the 
Government  itself  to  be  considered.  Venezuela,  like 
most  of  the  rest  of  Latin  America,  has  suffered  much 
at  the  hands  of  a  military-political  class,  whose  one 
method  of  acquiring  and  retaining  power  has  been 
that  of  force  ;  while,  once  installed  in  the  places  of 
authority,  the  members  of  that  class  have  devoted 
most  of  their  time  to  acquiring  wealth  and  power  for 
themselves,  and  little  or  none  to  the  task  for  which 
they  have  been  "elected  "  (in  theory)  by  the  people. 
To  such  an  extent  were  the  doctrines  of  this  class 
general  that  it  had  been  found  impossible  to  per- 
suade good  men  and  true  to  take  control  of  the 
national  finance,  those  fitted  to  do  so  knowing  well 
that  any  attempts  at  reform  on  their  part  would  at 
once  be  thwarted  by  their  self-seeking  colleagues  in 
the  Ministry,  to  whom  adequate  public  control  of 
expenditure  would  be  abhorrent. 

Nor  can  the  republic  be  blamed  for  the  existence 
of  this  class,  whose  traditions  are  merely  a  slightly 
exaggerated  copy  of  those  of  the  early  Spanish  aristo- 
cratic colonists,  who  deemed  it  derogatory  to  work, 
but  thought  it  no  shame  to  exist  upon  the  forced 
labour  of  others  ;  with  the  break-up  of  slavery  con- 
ditions, which  occurred  before  their  actual  abolition. 


THE    FUTURE    OF    VENEZUELA     265 

these  men  and  their  descendants,  often  not  of  pure 
Spanish  blood,  preferred  political  intrigues  and  the 
leadership  of  revolutions  to  honest  work,  and  until 
recent  years  this  caste  has  held  the  government  in 
the  majority  of  the  Latin- American  republics.  The 
belief  in  the  disgrace  of  labour  is  not  common  to 
any  age  or  any  country  among  men  of  a  certain  type, 
but  the  class  who  hold  these  views  have  held  more 
power  and  have  been  more  numerous  in  South 
America  than  in  Europe,  unless  we  go  back  some 
three  or  four  hundred  years  to  the  days  when 
"  gentlemen  "  were  supposed  to  live  like  the  lilies 
of  the  field,  with  an  occasional  fight  at  other  people's 
expense  to   relieve  the  monotony  of  existence. 

Early  in  the  history  of  Venezuela's  independence 
an  abortive  attempt  was  made,  in  the  election  of 
Doctor  Vargas  to  the  presidency,  to  counteract  the 
evil  influence  of  the  military  politicians  of  the  revo- 
lution, but  Mariiio  and  his  friends,  whose  names 
should  surely  be  reviled  by  every  true  patriot  in  Vene- 
zuela, made  the  succeeding  chaos  inevitable,  and 
it  may  be  doubted  if  the  spirit  which  revealed  itself 
in  the  election  of  Vargas  in  1834  attained  such 
prominence  again  until  the  time  of  the  Matos  revo- 
lution, which  was  an  attempt  (in  1902)  of  the 
people  of  Venezuela  to  do  away  with  the  military 
power  by  defeating  it  on  its  own  ground.  That 
revolt  failed,  but  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  supporters 
of  the  present  regime  were  prominent  among  its 
leaders. 

Whether  with  the  growing  dislike  for  military 
dictatorships  there  has  come  the  equally  necessary 
love  of  justice  and  straight  dealing,  and  real  hatred 
of  political  jobbery,  time  alone  will  show.  High 
hopes  have  been  fostered  by  the  speeches  of  General 
Gomez  for  the  greater  stability  and  responsibility 
of  the  Governments  of  the  republic,  and  it  remains 
for  the  people  of  Venezuela  to  see  that  these  hopes 


266  VENEZUELA 

are  realised.  Just  and  honest  government  is  the  first 
need  of  the  country  ;  given  those  conditions,  its  de- 
velopment should,   indeed  must,   be   rapid. 

Such  a  Government  should  divert  the  revenue  of 
the  country  from  the  private  pockets,  into  which  too 
much  of  it  has  hitherto  gone,  to  such  beneficent 
ends  as  the  improvement  of  ways  of  communication, 
the  cause  of  popular  education,  and  the  establish- 
ment  of  an   efficient   consular   service    abroad. 

Real  roads,  with  macadam  surface,  would  cause 
modern  methods  of  transport  to  supersede  the  antique 
pack-mule  method,  and  railways  would  follow  without 
direct  Government  intervention.  A  system  of  free 
popular  education  is  in  existence,  on  paper,  but  in 
reality  the  overwhelming  majority  of  Venezuelans  are 
as  yet  absolutely  illiterate  ;  yet  the  individuals  are 
far  from  dull,  and  increased  learning  will  doubtless, 
ere  long,  leave  no  chance  of  return  for  the  rule  of 
inefficiency  and  disorder.  The  consular  service  is 
already  being  improved,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
the  effect  on  foreign  commerce  will  soon  be  felt 
for  good. 

From  a  geographical  point  of  view  Great  Britain 
should  be  more  interested  in  Venezuela  than  in  any 
other  South  American  republic.  Not  only  is  it  almost 
the  nearest  part  of  that  continent  to  our  shores,  but 
in  British  Guiana,  Trinidad,  Tobago,  and  Barbados, 
to  say  nothing  of  other  West  Indian  islands,  we  are 
her  next-door  neighbours.  In  spite  of  these  facts 
the  amount  of  British  capital  in  Venezuela  is 
only  some  £8,000,000  sterling  as  compared  with 
£44,000,000  in  Uruguay  ;  we  are  a  very  poor  third 
in  the  list  of  her  customers,  the  next  highest,  France, 
buying  four  times  as  much  as  ourselves,  and  the 
United  States  nearly  six  times.  As  far  as  the  amount 
of  capital  invested  is  concerned,  the  comparative 
stability  of  the  various  countries  may  be  urged  as  a 
reason,  but  there  seems  no  reason  why  we  should  not 


THE    FUTURE    OF    VENEZUELA     267         llW- 

foster    trade    in    Venezuela    by    purchasing    mor^l^O 
those  of  her  many  products  which  we  need,  and  since 
a  large  proportion  of  these  would  be  shipped  through 
Trinidad,  it  might  be  urged  that  we  should  thereby 
strengthen  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Empire. 

The  future  of  Venezuela  depends  primarily  on  her 
own  people,  who  will  have  to  rouse  themselves  to 
develop  in  a  conscientious  and  painstaking  manner 
the  many  resources  of  their  country  ;  but  it  is  certain 
that  in  the  task  which  lies  before  them  they  will 
need  and  obtain  the  assistance  of  foreign  capital  and 
advice,  and  in  this,  if  British  enterprise  is  alive  to 
a  great  opportunity,  we,  as  a  nation,  should  bear 
no  small  part. 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX   A 

POPULATION  OF  STATES  AND  DISTRICTS  UNDER  THE 
CONSTITUTION  OF  1909  ACCORDING  TO  THE  CENSUS 
OF  1891 


state.                                District. 

Capital. 

Population. 

anzoAtegdi 

Barcelona 

133,06} 

Aragua 

Aragua 

36,802 

Bolivar 

Barcelona 

26,235 

Bruzual 

Clarines 

12,467 

Cagigal 

Onoto 

10,811 

Freites 

Cantaura 

16,665 

Independencia 

Soledad 

4,092 

Libertad 

San  Mateo 

7,200 

Miranda 

Pariaguan 

5,222 

Penalver 

Piritu 

8,773 

Tadeo  Monagas 

Mapire 

5,797 

APDRE 

San  Fernando 

22,937 

Achaguas 

Achaguas 

4,746 

Munoz 

Bruzual 

1,848 

San  Fernando 

San  Fernando 

12,186 

Paez 

Guasdualito 

4,157 

ARAGOl 

La  Victoria 

94,994 

Girardot 

Maracay 

9,505 

Marino 

Turmero 

13,235 

Ricaurte 

La  Victoria 

25,712 

San  Casimiro 

San  Casimiro 

9,405 

San  Sebastian 

San  Sebastian 

5,292 

Urdaneta 

Camatagua 

9,533 

Zamora 

Villa  de  Cura 

22,312 

270 


APPENDICES 


state. 

District. 

Capital. 

Population. 

BOLIYAR 

Ciadad  Bolivar 

55,7M 

Cedefio 

Caicara 

3-«47 

Heres 

Ciudad  Bolivar 

21,582 

Roscio 

Guasipati 

12,391 

Sucre 

Moitaco 

7.923 

Piar 

Upata 

10,001 

CARABOBO 

Valencia 

169,313 

Bejuma 

Bejuma 

18,282 

Guacara 

Guacara 

15.3^2 

Montalban 

Montalban 

17,469 

Ocumarc    dc    la 

Ocumare 

4>i57 

Costa 

Puerto  Cabello 

Puerto  Cabello 

18,489 

Valencia 

Valencia 

95  554 

COJEDES 

San  Carlos 

87,935 

Anzoategui 

Cojedes 

3.697 

Falcon 

Tinaquillo 

15.964 

Girardot 

El  Baiil 

9,108 

Pao 

Pao  de    San    Juan 
Bautista 

20,907 

Ricaurte 

Libertad 

9,248 

San  Carlos 

San  Carlos 

17.963 

Tinaco 

Tinaco 

11,048 

FALCON 

Coro 

139,110 

Acosta 

San  Juan 

7,910 

Buchivacoa  | 
Jurado          3 

Capatarida 
Urumaco 

18,898 

Colina 

La  Vela 

9,655 

Democracia 

Pedregal 

13.176 

Falcon 

Pueblo  Nuevo 

19.590 

Federacion 

Churuguara 

10,622 

Miranda 

Coro 

19,686 

Bolivar  > 
Petit      ) 

San  Luis 
Cabure     ! 

19.438 

Silva 

Tucacas 

3.943 

Zamora 

Cumarcbo 

16,192 

guArico 

Calabozo 

183,930 

Bruzual 

El  Sombrero 

21,189 

Infante 

Valle  de  la  Pascua 

21,564 

Miranda 

Calabozo 

25,860 

Monagas 

Altagracia   de  Ori- 
tuco 

31,297 

Roscio 

Ortiz 

27,072 

Zaraza 

Zaraza 

56,948 

APPENDICES 


271 


state. 

District. 

Capital. 

Population. 

LARA 

Barquisimeto 

189,624 

Barquisimeto 

Barquisimeto 

41-321 

Cabudare 

Cabudare 

16,938 

Crespo 

Duaca 

12,868 

Quibor 

Quibor 

20,273 

Tocuyo 

Tocuyo 

4i>559 

Torres 

Carora 

40,140 

Urdancta 

Siquisique 

16,525 

MERIDA 

Merida 

88,522 

Campoelias 

Egido 

12,457 

Libertador 

Merida 

29437 ' 

Miranda 

Timotes 

6,601 

Rangel 

Mucuchies 

4.783 

Rivas  Davila 

Bailadores 

6,875 

Sucre 

Lagunillas 

13.166 

Torondoy 

Torondoy 

1.595 

Tovar 

Tovar 

13.608 

MIRANDA 

Ocumare  del  Tuy 

141,446 

Acevedo 

Caucagua 

16,776 

Brion 

Higuerote 

7,963 

Guaicaipuro 

Los  Teques 

25.414 

Lander 

Ocumare  del  Tuy 

13.305 

Paez 

Rio  Chico 

18,621 

Paz  Castillo 

Santa  Lucia 

13,673 

Plaza 

Guarenas 

6,817 

Sucre 

Petare 

17,964 

Urdaneta 

Cua 

12,509 

Zamora 

Guatirc 

8,404 

MONAGAS 

Maturin 

74,503 

Acosta 

San  Antonio 

8,829 

Cedeno 

Caicara 

21,852 

Monagas 

Maturin 

25,874 

Piar 

Aragua  de  Maturin 

14.144 

Sotillo 

Uracoa 

3.804 

NUEYA 

La  Asuncion 

40,197 

ESPARTA 

Arismendi 

La  Asuncion 

6,266 

Diaz 

San  Juan  Bautista 

8.705 

Gomez 

San  Ana 

9,080 

Maneiro 

Pampatar 

5,144 

Marcano 

Juan  Griego 

5,309 

Marino 

Porlamar 

5,693 

'  Includes  the  municipality 

of  Indcpendencia.     See  Zulia. 

272 


APPENDICES 


state                          District. 

Capital. 

Population. 

PORTUGUESA 

Guanare 

96,0^5 

Acarigua 

Acarigua 

11,871 

Araurc 

Araure 

12,463 

Esteller 

Piritu 

8,450 

Guanare 

Guanare 

30,008 

Guanarito 

Guanarito 

10,432 

Obispo 

Ospino 

12,233 

Turen 

Villa  Bruzual 

10,588 

SUCRE 

Cumana 

92,030 

Arismendi 

Rio  Caribe 

11,268 

Benitez 

El  Pilar 

12,889 

Bermudez 

Cariipano 

17.500 

Marino 

Cristobal  Colon 

8,777 

Mejias 

Marigiiitar 

5,402 

Monies 

Cumanacoa 

8,133 

Rivero 

Cariaco 

7>396 

Sucre 

Cumana 

20,665 

tAchira 

San  Cristobal 

101,709 

Ayacucho 

San  Juan  de  Colon 

8,041 

Bolivar 

San  Antonio 

8,195 

Cardenas 

Tariba 

12,882 

Capacho 

Independencia 

9,091 

Junin 

Rubio 

12,229 

Jauregui 

La  Grita 

18,804 

Lobatera 

Lobatera 

5,143 

San  Cristobal 

San  Cristobal 

19,504 

Uribante 

Pregonero 

7,820 

TRUJILLO 

Trujillo 

146,585 

Betijoque 

Betijoque 

14,529 

Bocono 

Bocono 

33,289 

Carache 

Carache 

33-845 

Escuque 

Escuque 

12,696 

Trujillo 

Trujillo 

26,095 

Urdaneta 

La  Quebrada 

12,698 

Valera 

Valera 

13,433 

YARACUY 

San  Felipe 

85,844 

Bruzual 

Chivacoa 

8,134 

Nirgua 

Nirgua 

28,708 

San  Felipe 

San  Felipe 

17,959 

Sucre     1 
Bolivar  S 

Guama ) 
Aroa      ) 

11,838 

Urachiche 

Urachiche 

6,110 

Yaritagua 

Yaritagua 

13,095 

APPENDICES 


273 


state. 

ZAMORA 


ZULIA 


Arismendi 

Barinas 

Bolivar 

Obispos 

Pedraza 

Rojas 

Sosa 


Bolivar 

Colon 

Mara 

Maracaibo 

Miranda 

Paez 

Perija 

Sucre 

Urdaneta 


DISTRITO  FEDERAL 
TERRITORIO  AMAZONAS 


Capital. 

Population. 

Barinaa 

62,696 

Arismendi 

6,929 

Barinas 

9,157 

Barinitas 

7,146 

Obispos 

10,481 

Ciudad  Bolivia 

7,579 

Libertad 

10,430 

Nutrias 

10,974 

Maracaibo 

150,776 

Santa  Rita 

6.598 

San  Carlos  del  Zulia 

7,161 

San  Rafael 

5-538 

Maracaibo 

37,551 

Altagracia 

7,020 

Sinamaica 

68,707 

Libertad 

5,512 

Bobure 

5,529' 

Concepcion 

7,160 

Caracas  113,204 

San  Fernando  de           55,097 

Atabapo 

Tucupita  7,222 


TERRITORIO  DELTA-AMACURO 

'  Does  not  include  the  municipality  of  Independencia.     See  Merida. 


18 


APPENDIX    B 


TRADE   OF    VENEZUELA,   1909-10 
(Compiled  from  the  Estadistica  Mercantil  y  Maritima^  Caracas) 


IMPORTS   (BY   CLASSES). 


L 

Textiles 

IL 

Foodstuffs         

in. 

Hardware          

IV. 

Machinery         

V. 

Other  oils  (and  stearin) 

VI. 

Mineral  oils       

VII. 

Building  materials  and  labour 

VIII, 

Cement 

IX. 

Coal        

X. 

Railway  materials  •     

XI. 

Electrical  apparatus 

XII. 

General  merchandise 

Total 


£  (at  25-25). 

821,619 

444,142 

341.942 

65,091 

58,612 

34.198 

15,187 

12,816 

11,244 

5,791 

1,938 

430,620 

2,243,200 


IMPORTS   (BY  COUNTRIES). 


United  States 
Great  Britain 
Germany... 
Holland   ... 
France 
Spain 
Italy 

Trinidad  ... 
Belgium  ... 
Austria  ... 
Curasao  ... 
Other  countries 


Total 


£,  (at  25-25). 
730,560 
589,700 
422,234 

153,725 

148,930 

109,173 

58,953 

13,821 

12,110 

1,647 

1,183 

1,164 

2,243,200 


Note.— Omitting  coal  and   coined  gold,  the   totals  for  the  four 
leading  countries  are  as  follows  :  U.S.A.,  ;^585,953 ;  Great  Britain, 
;£58i,559  ;  Germany,  £420,868  ;  Holland,  ^152,501. 
274 


APPENDICES 


275 


EXPORTS  (BY   PRODUCTS). 


Coffee      

Cocoa       

Rubber  (caoutchouc,  sernambi 
Hides  (oxen,  goats,  and  others) 

Gold         

Egret  plumes     

Cattle       

Asphalt 

Dye  woods  and  tanning  barks 

Pearls       

Sugar       

Timber 

Tonka-beans       

Copaiba-balsam  and  oil 

Copper     

Tobacco 

Hellebore  

Alpargatas  (sandals) 

Fish-bladders     

Coco-palm  products     ... 

Cotton     

Horns       

Tortoise-shell,  mother-of-pearl 

Fruit        

Quinine 

Arrowroot  

Total 


and 


&c. 


balata) 


£  (at  2S-25)- 

1,469,476 

689,954 

557.127 

320,571 

65,738 

50.459 

40.374 

36.598 

23,101 

20,941 

20,080 

16,215 

12,487 

9.323 

7.792 

5.737 

2,806 

2,570 

2,383 

2,361 

2,291 

2,031 

1,642 

600 

492 

221 

3-363,370 


276 


APPENDICES 


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APPENDICES 


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APPENDIX   C 

POPULATION,  ALTITUDE,  MEAN  ANNUAL  TEM- 
PERATURE AND  DEATH-RATE  OF  PRINCIPAL 
VENEZUELAN   CITIES 

(From  the  Anuano  Estadistico,  1908,  and  the  data  for  the 
military  map,  1909) 

(a)  COAST   TOWNS. 


City. 

Population. 

Census  of 

1891. 

Altitude, 
in  Feet. 

Mean  Annual 

Temperature, 

Degrees 

Fahrenheit. 

Death  Rate 
1908,  per  1,000 
Inhabitants. 

Maracaibo           

34.740 

20 

86 

36-5 

Barcelona            

14,089 

43 

81-5 

15-8 

Puerto  Cabello 

13.176 

10 

81 

42 

Cumana 

11,471 

23 

8o-5 

197 

Carupano 

10,897 

26 

81 

25-9 

Coro         

10,161 

53 

81 

31-6 

La  Guaira            

8,512 

26 

84-5 

33'i 

La  Asuncion        

3,160 

356 

79 

27*3 

(6)  CORDILLERAS  AND  GUAYANA  HIGHLANDS. 

Caracas    

Valencia 

Barquisimeto 
San  Cristobal 
Villa  de  Cura      ... 
La  Victoria 

Merida      

Bocono     

San  Felipe 

Trujillo     

Ocumare  del  Tuy 
Los  Teques 
Guasipati 


72,429 

3,036      ! 

54.387 

1,577 

27,069 

1,868 

16,797 

2,722 

15.792 

1,835 

14,109 

1,782 

13,366 

5,415 

13,233 

4.336 

10,817 

808 

10,481 

2,640 

7,745 

693 

6,916 

3.864 

3.052 

? 

66-5 

34"4 

80 

24-5 

78 

35-1 

70-5 

19-6 

75-5 

27-6 

74 

29-6 

64-5 

29-9 

65 

32-9 

80 

33'9 

72 

26-3 

79 

6o-2 

68 

40-6 

86 

14-3 

282  APPENDICES 

(c)  LLANOS  AND   ORINOCO  VALLEY. 


City. 

Population. 

Census  of 

1891. 

Altitude 
in  Feet. 

Mean  Annual 

Temperature, 

Degrees 

Fahrenheit. 

Death  Rate 
1908,  per  1,000 
Inhabitants. 

Ciudad  Bolivar 

17.535 

125 

86-5 

23-8 

Maturin 

15-624 

244 

80-5 

117 

Aragua  dc  Barcelona    ... 

15,680' 

363 

82 

21-4 

San  Carlos           

10,159' 

495 

83 

47'4 

Guanare 

9.051 

636 

83-5 

9'3 

Calabozo 

8,159 

330 

88-5 

25-1 

San  Fernando  de  Apurc 

6,69s 

240 

91 

26-8 

Barinas     

5,354 

594 

82 

14-2 

Tucupita 

823 

? 

? 

? 

San  Fernando  de  Atabapo 

388 

? 

? 

? 

Very  scattered. 


HEIGHTS   OF   PRINCIPAL   MOUNTAINS. 


Range. 

Peak. 

Heieht,  in 
Feet. 

Sierra  Nevada  of  Merida 

La  Columna      

16,523 

La  Concha         

16,087 

La  Corona         

15,609 

El  Leon  

15,490 

El  Toro 

15,490 

Cordillera  of  the  Andes 

El  Salado           

13.949 

(outer  range) 

Los  Conejos      

13,761 

Cordillera  of  the  Coast 

Naiguata            

9,124 

Silla  de  Caracas  (eastern  peak) 

8,702 

Interior  Range 

Turumiquiri      

6,761 

APPENDIX    D 

GOVERNMENT    FINANCE,    1908-9 

(From  the  Anuario  Esladistico^  1908) 

REVENUE   1908-9. 

£  £ 

[  axes  on  foreign  trade  : — 

Import  duties 1,152,105 

Export  duty  (live  cattle)      3)37i 

Sundry  port  dues       20,204 

Storage  and  warehousing    ...         ...         ...  655 

Consular  fees 2,118 

Other  minor  imposts  1,310     1,179,763 


Internal    taxation     payable     throughout    the 

Federation  :— 

Sale  of  stamps  '         

109,048 

Stamped  paper          

5.134 

Tax  on  mining  properties 

4,895 

Tax  on  alcohol  and  tobacco           

112,767 

Tax  on  cigarettes,  &c 

85,833 

Tax  on  matches         

10.335 

Trademark  and  patent  dues           

160 

328,172 

Taxes    payable   in   the    Federal    district    and 

territories : — 

12%  duty  in  territories        

220,501 

Public  registry  of  property 

3.097 

Direct  and  local  taxes  in  territories 

876 

224,474 

Public  services  : — 

Telegraphs  and  cables         

10,566 

Other  Government  enterprises      

2,314 

12.880 

Revenue  from  national  estate  :— 

National  lands           

632 

Salt-pans         

202,744 

Pearl  fisheries           

494 

203,870 

•  Includes  postage  stamps,  for  which  allowance  should  be  made 
under  "  Public  Services." 


284  APPENDICES 

Minor  sources  of  revenue : —  £  £, 

Returns    on     sundry    capital,    securities, 

rights,  &c.  15,622 

Other  minor  sources  31,660         47,282 

Total  

EXPENDITURE   1908-9. 

Ministry  of  the  Interior  : — 

Legislature      

Ecclesiastical  subsidy  

PubHc  health 

Prisons 

Subsidies  to  States 

Charities  

General  

Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs  : — 
Consular  Service 
Legations  and  general         

Ministry  of  Finance  and  Pubhc  Credit : — 

Administrative  Services       

Diplomatic  claims  of  1903 

Other  branches  of  National  Debt 

Ministry  of  War  and  Marine  : — 

Army 

Navy    ... 

Dockyard         

MiUtary  map  of  Venezuela 

General  

Ministry  of  Public  Instruction  : — 

Higher  Education     

Elementary  Education         

General  

Ministry  of  National  Development : — 

Post  Office      

Telegraphs      

General  

Ministry  of  Public  Works  

"Emergencies" 

Total  


1,996,441 

£ 

£ 

17,593 

7-264 

2,577 

7,633 

224,074 

13,349 
28,146 

310,636 

2,404 
141,279 

143,683 

193,475 
126,404 
261,667 

581,546 

259,003 

22,003 

24,699 

4,566 

50,661 

360.932 

28,465 
55,561 
33,247 

117,273 

33,602 

80,847 

8,634 

123,183 

78,928 
171,693 

1,887,874 

APPENDIX   E 

THE    NATIONAL   DEBT   OF   VENEZUELA 

(Years  1906  to  1910) 

INTERNAL  DEBT. 


Branch. 

1906. 

1907. 

X9C8. 

1909. 

1910. 

Consolidated      3 

per  cent. stock' 

Other      

£ 
1,299,448 
1,744,242 

£ 

2,175,210 

551,240 

£ 

2,354-300 

279,885 

£ 

2,389,668 

165,784 

£ 

2,399,309 
119,156 

Totals     ... 

3,043,690 

2,726,050 

2,634,185 

2,555,452 

2,518,465 

FOREIGN    DEBT. 


Branch. 

1906. 

1907. 

1908. 

1909. 

igio. 

National    3     per 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

cent,  bonds  by 

diplomatic 

agreements  ... 

Provisional(Span- 

ish)  certificates 

483,169 
62 

466,919 
62 

453,295 
62 

433,309 
62 

417,414 
62 

Diplomatic  3  per 

cent  debt 
=  Claims  awarded 

4,993,627 

4,868,978 

4,735,958 

4,604,572 

4,418,987 

by  Hague  Tri- 

bunal, 1903    ... 

883,799 

777,514 

647,344 

518,409 

359,562 

Totals    ... 

6,360,657 

6,113,473 

5,836,659 

5,556,352 

5,196,025 

'  Created  in  1906  and  increased  by  conversion  of  other  branches 
in  1907. 

^  Great  Britain,  Italy,  and  Germany  were  paid  in  full  before  1908  ; 
Belgium,  France,  Mexico,  United  States,  Spain,  Holland,  Sweden, 
and  Norway  are  still  creditors. 


A     BIBLIOGRAPHY     OF     WORKS     RE- 
LATING  TO    VENEZUELA 

I.  GENERAL 

1.  Appun,  C.  F.     Unter  den  Tropen,     Bd.  i.     Jcna^  1871. 

2.  Benard,  C.     Le  Venezuela.     Pp.  106,  map.     Bordeaux^ 

1897. 

3.  Bolet-Peraza,  N.     The  Republic  of  Venezuela.     Svo. 

Boston,  1892  (reprinted  from  New  England  Mag.). 

4.  BoliYar,  G.  de.     Venezuela.     Journ.  Manchester  Geogr. 

Soc,  vol.  XXV,  pp.  18-31  [1909]. 

5.  Brown,  G.  M.  L.     Three  old  Ports  on  the  Spanish  Main. 

Nat.  Gcogr.  Mag.^  vol.  xvii,  pp.  622-38  [1906]. 

6.  Bruycker,   P.   de.      Le  Venezuela.     Bull.  Soc.  Gcogr. 

Anvcrs,  t.  x,  pp.  303-31  [1885]. 

7.  Burger,  0.     Reisen  eines  Naturforschers  in  tropischen 

Siidamerika.     Pp.  vi,  395,  Svo.     Leipzig.,  1900. 

8.  CaseneuYe,  P.  de  and  Frangois.     Les  Etats-Unis  de 

Venezuela.     Map.     Paris^  1888. 

9.  Chaffanjon,   J.      Venezuela   et    Colombie.      Bull.   Soc. 

Geogr.  Comm.  Paris,  t.  xiii,  pp.  431-42  [1890-1] . 

10.  Chaper,  — .     La  Cote  Nord  du  Venezuela.     Arch.  Miss. 

Sci.  Litt.  Pans,  ser.  3,  t.  xiv,  pp.  337-43  [1888]. 

11.  Creveaux,  J.     Voyages  dans  I'Amerique  du  Sud.    Paris, 

1883. 

12.  Curtis,   W.  E.     Venezuela  :   her  Government,  People, 

and  Boundary.     Nat.  Geogr.  Mag.,  vol.  vii,  pp.  42-58, 
map  [1896] . 

13.  .     Venezuela  :  a  Land  where  it's  always  Summer. 

Pp.  315,  map,  8vo.     New  York  and  London,  1896. 

14.  Dance,  C.  D.     Four  Years  in  Venezuela.     London,  1876. 


288  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

15.  Dauxion-Lavaysse,  J.  F.   A  Statistical,  Commercial,  and 

Political  Description  of  Venezuela,  Trinidad,  Marga- 
rita, and  Tobago.     London,  1820. 

16.  Dawson,  T.  C.    The  South  American  Republics.    2  vols. 

London,  1904. 
Den  Kati,  H.    See  Ten  Kate,  H. 

17.  Depons,    F.       Voyage    dans    I'Amerique    meridionale. 

3  vols.,  8vo.     Paris,  1806. 

18.  .  Travels  in  South  America  during  1801-4,  con- 
taining a  Description  of  the  Caracas.  Map,  8vo. 
London,  1807. 

19.  Duane,  W.     A  Visit  to  Colombia  in  the  Years  1822  and 

1823.     Philadelphia,  1826. 

20.  Eastwick,  E.  B.    Venezuela  :  or,  Sketches  of  Life  in  a 

South    American    Republic.      Map    by    R.    Rojas. 
London,  1868. 

21.  Erbach,   E.   Graf  zu.      Wandertage    eines   deutschen 

Touristen  im  Strom-  und  Kiistengebiet  des  Orinoko. 
8vo.     Leipzig,  1892. 

22.  Engel,   F.      Mittheilungen    iiber    Venezuela.       Globus, 

bd.  xiv,  pp.  44-119,  145-84  [1868]. 

23.  Ernst,   A.     Der   erste   Census   in   Venezuela.      Globus, 

bd.  xxvi,  pp.  75-7  [1874] . 

24.  Fitzgerald,  D.     Du  Venezuela.     Bull.  Soc.  Gcogr.  Comm. 

Bordeaux,  t.  i,  pp.  262-9,  285-93,  313-5,  352-4  [1878]- 

25.  Qazzurelli,  A.     II  Venezuela.     Rome,  1901. 

26.  .     Venezuela,  Ordinamento,  Produzioni  e  Scambi. 

Pp.  62.     Rome,  1904. 

27.  Gerstacher,  F.      Neue  Reisen   durch   die  Vereinigten 

Staaten,  Mexico,  Ecuador,  West  Indien  und  Vene- 
zuela,    ^ena,  1868-9. 
Goiticoa,  N.  Y.    See  Yeloz-Goiticoa,  N. 

28.  Halle,  F.     Colombia.     8vo.     London,  1824. 

29.  Hawkshaw,  J.     Reminiscences  of  South  America  from 

two  and  a  half  years'  Residence  in  Venezuela.    8vo. 
London,  1838. 

30.  Hondius,  J.      Brevio   et  admiranda    Descriptio    Regni 

Guianoe.     ?  1599. 

31.  Jonas,  P.     Nachrichten  iiber  Venezuela.     Pctermann's 

Mitt.,  bd.  xxiv,  pp.  11-14  [1878]  ;  bd.  xxv,  pp.  212- 
16  [1879]. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  289 

32.  Landaeta  Resales,  M.     Gran  recopilacion  geografica, 

estadistica   e  historica    de   Venezuela.      2  vols.,  fo. 
Caracas^  1889. 

33.  Lisboa,  M.  M.     Rela^ao  de  uma  Viagem  a  Venezuela, 

Nova  Granada  e  Equador.     8vo.     Brussels,  1866. 

34.  Mozans,  H.  J.     Up  the  Orinoco  and  down  the  Magda- 

lena.     New  York  and  London^  1910. 

35.  Olinda,   A.     Venezuela  m    der    Gegenvi^art.      Deutsch. 

Rundschau   Geogr.^  bd.   xxiv,  pp.    337-48,    398-407 
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36.  Risquez,  D.  F.  A.   Venezuela.   Rev.  Geogr.  Col.  y  Mercantile 

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37.  Rojas,  F.  Y.     Guia   Commercial   de  la   Republica  de 

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38.  Roncayolo,  M.     Au  Venezuela.     Paris,  1894. 
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39-  Scruggs,    W.    L.      The    Colombian    and    Venezuelan 
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40.  Sievers,  W.     Venezuela.     Mitt.   Geogr.  Ges.  Hamburg, 

1885-6,  pp.  134-48. 

41.  .     Census  von  Venezuela.    Ibid.,  pp.  316-26. 

42.  .     Zur  Kenntniss  Venezuelas.      Globus,  bd.  lii,  pp. 

134-7,  149-52  [1887]. 

43.  .     Zweite  Reise  in  Venezuela  in  den  Jahren  1892-3. 

Map,  I  :  1,000,000.     Mitt.  Geogr.  Ges.  Hamburg,  bd. 
xii,  pp.  328  [1896]. 

44.  Spence,  J.  M.     The   Land  of   Bolivar.     2  vols.,  8vo. 

London,  1878. 

45.  Tallenay,  J.  de.      Souvenirs  de   Venezuela.      12   mo. 

Paris,  1884. 

46.  Tejera,   M.     Venezuela   pintoresca  e   ilustrada.     8vo. 

Paris,  1875. 

47. .     Venezuela  en  la  exposicion  de   Paris  en  1878. 

8vo.     Paris,  1878. 

48    Ten  Kate,  H.     Travels  in  Guiana  and  Venezuela.  Rev. 

Col.  Inter nat.  Amsterdam,  t.  ii,  pp.  527-40  [1886]. 

49.  Yeloz-Goiticoa,  N.    Les  Etats-Unis  de  Venezuela.  Bull. 

Soc.    Geogr.    Comm.    Bordeaux,    t.    xiv,    pp.  33-9 

[1891]. 

50. .     Venezuela.      Pp.   608,   map,   8vo.      Washington, 

1904. 

19 


290  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

51.  YillaYicencio,  R.     La  Republica  de  Venezuela  bajo  el 

punto  de  vista  de  la  Geografia  y  Topografia  medicas 
y  de  la  Demografia.     Pp.  137,  8vo.     Caracas,  1880. 

52.  Yincent,  L.     Notice  sur  les  Etats-Unis  de  Venezuela. 

Bull.  Soc.  Geogr.  Comm.  Bordeaux,  t.  xiii,  pp.  57-69, 
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53.  Wappaus,  J.  E.     Die  Republiken  von   Siid  Amerika. 

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54.  Anon.     Letters  written  from  Colombia  during  a  Journey 

from  Caracas  to  Bogota.  Pp.  208,  map.  London, 
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55.  .     Tropical  Information :  a  Treatise  on  the  History, 

Climate,  Soil,  Productions,  &c.  of  Venezuela.  i2mo. 
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56.  .     Appun's  Wanderungen  durch  Venezuela.     Aus- 

land,  vol.  xliv,  pp.  817-21  [1871]. 

57. .    Notice  politique,  statistique,  commerciale,  &c.,sur 

les  Etats-Unis  du  Venezuela.  Map,  i2mo.  Paris, 
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58.  .     Die  Vereinigten  Staaten  von  Venezuela.   Deutsch. 

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59. .     Venezuela  :    Laws   regulating   Immigration   and 

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61. .  Official  History  of  the  Discussion  between  Vene- 
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62.  .     Notes  on  Venezuela.   Scottish  Geogr.  Mag.,  vol.  xix, 

pp.  97,  98,  map  [1903]. 

63.  Official  Publications,    i.  AnnualjReports  of  the  Ministers 

of  State  to  the  National  Congress. 
64. .     2.  Messages  of  the  President  of  the  Repubhc  to 

the  National  Congress. 

65. .     3.  Codigos  de  Venezuela. 

66. .     4.  Recopilacion  de  leyes  y  decretos  de  Venezuela. 

67.  .     5.  Venezuela  :  Ministerio  de  Relaciones.    World's 

Colombian    Exposition   at  Chicago,      The   United 

States  of  Venezuela  in  1903.  Pp  149,  map,  8vo.  New 
York,  1903. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  291 

68.  Anon.  6.  Ministerio  de  Fomento.  Direccion  general  de 
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69. .     7.  Reports  of  the  Council  of  the  Corporation  of 

Foreign  Bondholders  (annual),     London. 

70.  .     8.  British     Foreign     Office    Consular     Reports, 

Annual  Series  (Venezuela,  Caracas,  &c.). 

II.     GEOGRAPHICAL. 

71.  Aguerrevere,  F.,  &C.   Trabajos  del  Cuerpo  de  Ingenieros 

encargado  del  levantamiento  del  Piano  Militar  de 
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72.  Berthelot,  S.     Sur  les  travaux  geographiques  et  statisti- 

ques  executes  dans  toute  I'etendue  du  territoire  du 
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73.  Bianconi,   F.      Carte    des    Etats-Unis    de    Venezuela. 

I  :  3,400,000.  Rev.  Franf.,  t.  viii,  pp.  413-19 
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74.  Boussingault,  — .     Rapport  sur  les  travaux  geographi- 

ques et  statistiques  executes  dans  la  republique  de 
Venezuela,  d'apres  les  ordres  du  Congres  par  M.  le 
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[1841]. 

75.  Codazzi,  A.     Atlas  fisico  y  politico  de  la  Republica  de 

Venezuela.     Pp.  8,  33  maps,  &c.     Caracas,  1840. 
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le  Venezuela.     4to.     Paris,  1841. 
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Paris,  1 84 1. 

78.  Ernst,    A.       Demarkation    der    Venezuelanisch-brasil- 

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79.  Hondius,   H.      Venezuela    cum    parte    Australi    Novae 

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80.  Humboldt,  F.  H.  A.  y.     Geognostische  Skizze  von  Sikl- 

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292  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

82.  Jahn,  A.  Contribuciones  a  la  geografia  fisica  de  Vene- 
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83. .     Contribuciones  a  la  Hidrogafia  del  Orinoco  y  Rio 

Negro.     Map,  i  :  1,000,000.     Caracas^  1907. 

84.  Level,  A.  A.     Nomenclator  de  Venezuela,  contentivo  de 

su  censo  en  orden  alf abetico.  T. 2, 8vo.  Caracas,  1883. 

85.  Oltmann,  — .      Don   Jose   de    Ituriaga's   astronomische 

Beobachtungen  am  Nieder-Orinoco.  .  .  .   1754  bis 
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[1830]. 
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86.  Sievers,   W.      Bemerkungen    zur    Karte   der  Venezo- 

lanisch-Brasilianischen  Greuze.     Zeitschr.  Ges.  Erdk. 

Berlin,  bd.  xxii,  pp.  1-5,  map,  i  :  2,000,000  [1887]. 
87. .     Die  Grenzen  Venezuelas,     Globus,  bd.  Ixix,  pp. 

53-5,  map  [1896]. 
88 .     Eine   neue    Karte   von  Venezuela.     Petermann's 

Mitt.,  bd.  liv,  pp.  69,  70,  map,  i  :  1,500,000  [1908]. 

89.  Tejera,  M.     Mapa  Fisico  y  Politico  de  Venezuela.     4 

sheets,  Paris,  1876. 

90.  Anon.     Residuum  Continentis  (Viz.   Caribana  &  Nova 

Andalusia)  cum  adjacentibus  insulis.     1598. 

91. .  Carta  plana  de  la  Provincia  de  Caracas  o  Vene- 
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92.  .     Memoria  de  la  Direccion  general  de  estadistica 

al  Presidente  de  los  Estados  Unidos  de  Venezuela 
en  1873.     3  vols.     Caracas,  1873. 

93. .     Texte  et  carte  commerciale  des  Etats-Unis  de 

Venezuela  avec  notice  descriptive.     Paris,  1888. 

94.  .     Orinoco- Essequibo  Regions.  .  .  .  map,  2,  Senate 

Doc.  U.S.  (Boundary  Commission),  1897. 

See  also  Nos.  79,  119,  120,  366,  367. 

III.     GEOLOGICAL. 

95.  Ahrensburg,  H.     Erdbeben  in  Caracas.      Mitt.   Gcogr. 

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96.  Attwood,  G.     A  Contribution  to  South  American  Geo- 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY  293 

97.  Bendrat,  T.  A.     Geologic  and  Petrograpliic  Notes  on 

the  Regions  about  Caicara,  Venezuela.  Aiiicr. 
Journ.  Sci.,  ser.  4,  vol.  xxxi,  pp.  443-52  [iQii]. 

98.  Boussingault,  — .   Les  Sources  Thermales  de  la  Chaine 

du  littoral  du  Venezuela.  CompL  Rend.,  t.  xci,  pp. 
836-41  [1880]. 

99.  Buch,  L.  Y.     Von  Aptychus,  und  iiber  die  Anden  von 

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102.  Foster,  C.  Le  NeYe.     On  the  Caratal  Goldheld.     Quart. 

Joiirn.  Geol.  Soc.^  vol.  xxv,  pp.  336-43  [1869]. 

103.  Gerhardt,    K.       Beitrag    zur    Kenntniss    der    Kreide- 

formation  in  Venezuela  und  Peru.  N.  Jahrb.^ 
Beilage-Band  xi,  pp.  65-117  [1897]. 

104.  Humboldt,  F.  H.  A.  y.      Esquisse  d'un  Tableau  Geo- 

logique  de  I'Amerique  meridionale.  Journ.  Phys., 
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105. .     Account  of  the  Earthquake  which  destroyed  the 

Town  of  Caracas  on  the  26th  March,  1812.  Edinb. 
Phil.  Journ.^  vol.  i,  pp.  272-80  [1819]. 

106.  Karsten,   H.      [Letter    from    Puerto    Cabello    on    the 

Geology  of  Western  Venezuela.]  Ber.  Acad.  Wiss. 
Berlin,  1849,  PP-  197-200. 

107.  .     [On  Neocomian  Rocks  near  Trujillo.]     Ibid.,  pp. 

370-6. 

108. .  [Tertiary  and  Cretaceous  in  Cumana  and  Barce- 
lona.] Zeitschr.  deutsch.  geol.  Ges.,  bd.  ii,  pp.  86-8 
[1B50]. 

109. .    Beitrag  zur  Kenntniss  der  Gesteine  des  nordlichen 

Venezuela.     Ibid.,  pp.  345-61. 

no. .  Ueber  die  geognostische  Verhaltnisse  des  nordli- 
chen Venezuela.  Archiv.  Min.  Geogn.,  bd.  xxiv,  pp. 
440-79  [185 1 ]. 

III.  .     Geognostische    Bemerkungen    iiber  die   Umge- 

bungen  von  Maracaibo  und  iiber  die  Nordkiiste 
von  Neu  Granada.  Ibid.,  bd.  xxv,  pp.  567-73 
[1853]. 


294  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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113.  .     Die    geognostische    Beschaffenheit  der  Gebirge 

der  Provinz  Caracas.  ZeitscJir.  deutsch.  geol.  Ges., 
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114. .     Geologie  de  I'ancienne   Colombie  Bolivarienne. 

Pp.  62,  map,  4to.     Berlin^  1886. 

115.  Lorie,  J.     Fossile  Mollusken  von  Curagao,  Aruba  and 

der  Kiiste  von  Venezuela.  Smnml.  geol.  Reichs-Mus. 
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116.  Salomon,  W.     Ueber  angeblicher  Untersilur  in  Vene- 

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(No.  loi)  were  bought  in  U.S.A.  and  not  from 
Venezuela.] 

117.  Sievers,  W.     Das  Erdbeben  vom  26  Marz,  i8i2,an  den 

Nordkiiste  Siidamerikas.  Mitt.  Geogr.  Ges.  Hamburg., 
pp.  265-71. 

118. .     Reiseberichte  aus  Venezuela.     Ibid..,  pp.  2']2-^']  ; 

1885-6,  pp.  1-133. 

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237.  .     The    United     States     of     Venezuela     in     1893. 

(World's  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago.)     Pp. 
149,  map,  8vo.     New  York,  1893, 

238. .  Brief  submitted  by  Venezuela  to  the  Commis- 
sion appointed  to  investigate  and  report  upon  the 
true  Divisional  Line  between  the  Republic  of 
Venezuela  and  British  Guiana.    Pp.  28.    Washington. 

239. .     U.  S.  Commission  on  Boundary  between  Vene- 
zuela and  British  Guiana.    Documents,  &c.     8  vols. 
Washington^  i897- 
See  also  Nos.  293,  324,  325,  338,  343. 

VI.  ETHNOLOGICAL 

240.  Appun,  K.  F.     Die   Goajira-Indianer.     Ausland,    1868, 

pp.  1220-22. 

241.  Breton,  R.     Dictionnaire  Caraibe-Francais.     Tt.  2.,  4to. 

Auxerre,  1665-6. 
242. .     Grammaire  Caraibe.     8vo.     Ibid.,  1667. 

243.  Brinton,  D.  G.     The  Dwarf  Tribe  of  the  Upper  Amazon. 

Washington,  1898. 

244.  Calcano,   J.      El   Castellano    en   Venezuela.      Estudio 

Critica.     8vo.     Caracas,  1897. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  303 

245.  Costambert,  E.     Coup  d'CEil  snr  les  productions  et  sur 

les  peuplades  geophages  et  les  autres  populations 
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246.  D'Orbigny,   A.      L'homme   Americain   (de   FAmerique 

meridionale).     Tt.  2.     Paris,  1839. 

247.  Du  Pouget,  J.  F.  A.     L'Amerique  prehistorique.     8vo. 

Paris,  1883. 

248.  Engel,  F.     Pfahlbauten  in  Venezuela.     Ausland,  1865, 

pp.  254-8. 

249. .     Die  Goajiros.     Ibid.,  pp.  798-802,  834-9. 

250. .     Volksbilderaus  Venezuela.    /fc^Vl,  1867,  pp.  11-14. 

251.  Ernst,  A.     Anthropological  Remarks  on  the  Population 

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252. .     Ueber    die     Reste    der    Ureinwohner     in    den 

Gebirgen  von  Merida.     Zeitsclir.  Ethnol.,  vol.  xvii. 

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253.  Garcia,  G.     Origen  de  los  Indios  de  el  Nuevo  Mundo, 

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254.  Goering,  A.     A  Visit  to  the  Guajiro  Indians  of  Mara- 

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255.  .     Venezuelanische    Alterthiimer.     Mitt,    Ver.   Erd- 

kunde  Leipzig,  1874,  pp.  21-3. 

256. .     Bei  den  Chaymas-Indianern  von  Caripe.     Mitt. 

Ver.  Erdk.  Halle,  1879,  pp.  40-48. 

257.  Hervas   y   Panduro,   L.      Catalogo  de  las  lenguas  de 

las  naciones  conocidas.  ...  6  vols.  4to.  Madrid, 
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258.  Level,  A.  A.     Informe  sobre   el   estado   actual  de  los 

Distritos  de  reduccion  de  indigenas  Alto  Orinoco, 
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259.  Lopez  Borreguero,  R.      Los  Indios   Caribes.     2   vols. 

i6nio.     Madrid,  1875. 

260.  Lugo,    B.    de.      Gramatica    en   la   lengua    general   del 

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261.  Marcano,  G.     Ethnographic  precolombienne  de  Vene- 

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304  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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263.  .     Ethnographie     precolombienne    du    Venezuela, 

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264.  Morisot,  — .     Notes  ethnographiques  recueillies  dans  le 

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266.  Plassard,  L.     Les  Guaraunos.     Bull.  Soc.  Gcogr.  Paris^ 

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267.  S M.    D.   L.     Dictionnaire   Galibi.  .  .  .      Precede 

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268.  Tauste,  F.  de.     Arte  y  Bocabulario  de  la  Lengua  de  los 

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269.  TaYera  Acosta,  B.     En  el  Sur  (dialectos  indigenas  de 

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See  also  No.  313,  376. 

VII.     CARACAS  AND   THE  "  CENTRO." 

271.  Andral,  — .     Trade   of    Caracas  District  for  the  Year 

1899.  Foreign  Office  Cons.  Rep.,  Ann.  Ser.,  No.  2466 
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272.  Appun,  C.  F.  and  L.  Martin.     Beobachtungen  auf  ihrer 

Reise  nach  Venezuela  im  December,  1848,  und 
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bd.  vi,  pp.  123-30  [1849]. 

273.  Blume,  — .     Die  Verhaltnisse  von  Venezuela   und    die 

dortige  deutsche  Colonic  rovar  nach  neueren  hand- 
schriftlichen  Mitteilungen  und  eigner  Erfahrung. 
Monatsb.  Ges.  Erdk.  Berlin,  ser.  2,  bd.  x,  pp.  11 1-27 

[1853]- 

274.  Curtis,  W.  E.  C.     The  Capitals  of  Spanish  America. 

8vo.    New  York,  1888. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  305 

275.  Engel,  F.     Die  Kiiste  von  Caracas.     Zcilschr.  Ges.  Erdk. 

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276.   .     Caracas,  die  Hauptstadt  von  Venezuela.     Globus, 

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277.  Ernst,  A.    Das  Thai  von  Caracas  in  Venezuela.    Globus^ 

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278.  .     Die     Witterungsverhaltnisse     der     Thaler    von 

Caracas.  Zeitschr.  Ges.  Erdk.  Berlin,  bd.  vii,  pp. 
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279.  Fendler,  A.    [Meteorology  of  Colonia  Tovar.]  Smithson 

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280.  Fitzgerald,  H.  D.  Valencia  (Venezuela).  Bull.  Soc.  Geogr 

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281.  Galli,  A.     Del  Discoprimiento  di   un   Nuovo   Baco  da 

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282.  Goering,  A.      [Puerto   Cabello   to   Valencia.]     Globus, 

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283.  Gronen,  D.    Puerto  Cabello.    Deutsche  Rundschau,  bd.  ix, 

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284.  Herzog,   A.     Eine   Besteigung    der   Silla   de    Caracas. 

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285.  Hesse-Wartegg,  E.  y.     Beobachtungen  iiber  den   See 

von  Tacarigua  im  nordlichen  Venezuela.  Peler- 
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286.  Kiesselbach,  W.     Von  Bremen  nach  Caracas  und  der 

deutschen     Niederlassung    Tovar     in     Venezuela. 
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Martin,  L.    See  Appun,  C.  F. 

287.  Ritter,  C.     Ein  Tag  in  San  Estevan.     Geschildert  von 

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288.  Rivera,  A.     An    Illustrated  Guide  to  Caracas.     Phila- 

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289.  Spence,  J.  M.     Primera  Ascension  al  Pico  de  Naiguata. 

8vo.     Caracas,  1872. 
See  also  Nos.  5,  13,  20,  21,  98,  105,  113,  119,  133,  222, 
381,  382,  383,  387. 


20 


306  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


VIII.  ZULIA. 

290.  Delechaux,  — ,     Renseignements  sur  le  port  et  sur  la 

barre  de  Maracaibo.  Ann.  Hydvogr.  Paris^  t.  xiii, 
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291.  Eggers,  H.    Die  Asphalt-Quellen  am  See  von  Maracaibo. 

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292.  Engel,  F.      Maracaibo.     Zeitschr.    Ges.    Erdk.    Berlin, 

bd.  V,  pp.  418-52  [1870]. 

293.  Humbert,  J.     Un  Gibraltar   ignore.     Bull.  Soc.   Gcogr. 

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294.  Plumacher,  0.    Maracaibo.    Ausland,  bd.  Ixi,  pp.  781-5, 

812-14,  836-9  [1888]. 

295.  Pocaterra,  J.  D.     Derrotero  del  Golfo  de  Venezuela  6 

saco  de  Maracaibo.     New  York,  1864. 
See  also  Nos.  6,  11 1,  119,  248,  254,  393,  395. 

IX.  THE   ANDES. 

296.  Engel,  F.     Eine    Ersteigung    der    Sierra    Nevada    de 

Merida  in  Venezuela.  Globus,  bd.  xv,  pp.  278-81, 
298-301,  330-32  [1869]. 

297.  .     Auf  der  Sierra  Nevada  de  Merida.     Saninil.  gent. 

verstand.  Wiss.  Vortrage,  n.f.,  bd.  iii,  no.  58.  Ham- 
burg, 1888. 

298.  Goering,  A.     Sierra    Nevada   von    Merida.     Mitt.    Ver. 

Erdkitnde  Leipzig,  1875,  pp.  101-5. 

299. .     Voin  tropischen  Tieflande  zum  ewigen  Schnee. 

Leipzig,  n.d.  [1895?]. 

300.  Guerrero,  E.  C.     El  Tachira  fisico,  politico  e  ilustrado. 

Pp.  306.     8vo.     Caracas,  1905. 

301.  .     El  Tachira.     Bol.  R.  Soc.  Geogr.  Madrid,  t.  xlviii, 

pp.  133-6  [1906]. 

302.  Sievers,  W.     [Communication  relative  to   his  journey 

to  the  Cordillera  of  Merida.]  Mitt.  Geogr.  Ges.  Ham- 
burg, 1884,  pp.  339-45- 

303. .  Ueber  Schneeverhiiltnisse  in  der  Cordillere  Vene- 
zuela's.   Jahresb.  Geogr.  Ges.  Milnchen,  1885,  pp.  54-7. 

304. .     Bemerkungen     zur    Original     Routenkarte    der 

Venezolanische  Cordillere.  Mill.  Geogr.  Ges.  Ham- 
burg, 1885-6,  pp.  309-16,  map,  I  :  1,000,000. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  307 

305.  Sievers,   W.     Randschaftlicher    Charakter   der  Anden 

Venezuela's.     Globus^   bd.  li.  pp.    8-1 1,  26-9,  41-4 

[1887J. 
306. .     Die   Cordillere  von  M^rida  nebst  bemerkungen 

iiber   das    Karibische    Gebirge.     Geogr.    Abhand., 

bd.  iii.    Pp.  238,  map  [1888] . 
See  also  Nos.  99,  107,  119,  147,  150,  162,  252. 

X.     FALCON,  &c. 

307.  Sievers,  W.     Richard  Ludwig's  Reisen  auf  Paraguana 
(Venezuela).     Globus,  bd.  Ixxiii,  pp.  303-9  [1898]. 

308. .     Die  Inseln  von   der  Nordkiiste  von  Venezuela. 

Ibid.,  bd.  Ixxiv,  pp.   163-5,  291-4,  302-7  [1898]. 

309. .     Richard  Ludwig's  Reisen  in  Coro.  Ibid.,  bd.lxxv, 

177-10  [1899]. 
See  also  Nos.  43,  106,  119,  137,  403,  404. 

XL     THE   "ORIENTE." 

310.  Ahrenburg,    H.     Die     Perlenfischerei    auf    der    Lisel 

Margarita.     Mem.   Geogr.   Ges.   Jena,   bd.  xxv,   pp. 

37-9  [1907]- 

311.  Beebe,  Mary  B.  and  C.  W.     Our  Search  for  a  Wilder- 

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312.  Erbach-Erbach,  E.    Graf  zu.     Im  Delta  des  Orinoko. 

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313.  Ernst,  A.     Bemerkungen  iiber  das  Delta  des  Orinoco 

und  die  Guaraunen.     Globus,  bd.  xvii,  pp.  316-18 
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314.  Fostin,  E.     Une  plaine  de  bitume  au  Venezuela.    ConipL 

Rend.  Soc.  Geogr.  Paris,  1895,  pp.  221-4. 

315.  Goering,  A.     Ausflug  nach  den  neuen  Guacharo-hohlen 

in  der  Venezolanischen  Provinz  Cumana.     Globus, 
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316.  Hirzel,  H.     Erdol  und  Asphalt  auf  der  Inseln   Peder- 

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317.  Humboldt,  F.  H.  A.  y.     Account  of  the  Great  Cavern 

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308  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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319.  SieYers,  W.     Ein   Schlammvulean,   Hervidero,  in   der 

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320.  Wall,  G.  P.    On  the  Geology  of  a  Part  of  Venezuela  and 

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321.  Anon.     Recollections  of  Cumana.     Orient.  Herald,  vol. 

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322. .       Wanderungen     an      der     Kiiste     Venezuela's. 

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See  also  Nos.   5,  21,   108,   146,   155,   164,  178,  256,  270, 
386,  397- 

XII.     THE   LLANOS. 

323.  Bingham,  H.     The  Journal  of  an   Expedition   across 

Venezuela  and  Colombia.     Svo.     Neiv   Haven  and 
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324.  Caryajal,  J.  de.     Relacion  del  descubrimiento  del  Rio 

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325.  Cortes  de  Madariaga,  J.     Diario  y  observaciones  .  .  . 

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326.  Gagliardi,  — .     Le  condizioni  delle  colonic  italiane  nel 

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327.  Humboldt,   F.   H.   A.   y.      Ansichten    der   Natur.  .  .  . 

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328.  Paez,  R,     Travels  and  Adventures  in  South  and  Central 

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329.  Anon.     Die  handschaft  am  Apurestrom  in  Venezuela. 

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Sec  also  Nos.  34,  108,  188,  197,  213,  214. 

XIII.     BOLIVAR   CITY   AND   STATE. 

330.  Andre,  E.     The  Caura  Affluent  of  the  Orinoco.     Geogr. 

Journ.,  vol.  xx,  pp.  283-306  [1902]. 

331.  .     The  Caura.     4to  &  fo.,  map.     Trinidad,  1(^02. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  309 

332.  Andr6,  E.     A  Naturalist  in  the  Guianas.     Pp.  310,  map. 

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333.  Bendrat,  T.  A.     Karte  der  Umgebung  von  Caicara  in 

Venezuela.     Petermann's  Mitt.  1910,  pi.  xlvi. 

334.  -.     Ciudad  Bolivar,     y^ourn.  Geogr.,  hd.  v'm,  pp.  218- 

22  [1910] . 
Blair,  Dr.    Sec  No.  354. 

335.  Campbell,  W.  H.     By  the  Cuyooni  to  the  Orinoco  in 

1857.  "  Tiinehri,"  Demerara,  vol.  ii,  pp.  133-58 
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336.  Du  Marais,  — .     Renseignements  sur  I'Orenoque.     Ann. 

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337.  Eckermann,  — .     Orinoco  Fahrten.    Ann.  Hydrographie, 

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338.  Elliot,  C.     Proposed  Exploration  of  the  River  Orinoco, 

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339.  Ernst,     A.       Die     Goldregion     des     venezuelanischen 

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340.  Fernandez-Duro,  C.   Rios  de  Venezuela  y  de  Colombia. 

Relaciones  ineditas  (Antonio  de  la  Torre,  &c.). 
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341.  Foster,  C.  Le  Neve.     A  Journey  up  the  Orinoco  to  the 

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342.  Galli,  G.     Sulle  Miniere  Aurifere  della  Guayana.     Bol. 

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343.  Gumilla,  P.  J.    Histoire  naturelle,  civile  et  geographique 

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344.  Lemos,  —  de.     Trade  of  Ciudad  Bolivar  for  the  Year 

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345.  Morisse,  L.     Excursion  dans  I'Eldorado  (El  Callao).     4 

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346.  Paquet,  N.     L'Or  en  Guyane  Venezuelien.    8vo.     Paris, 

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347.  Passarge,  S.     Reise  im  venezolanischer  Guiana.     Mitih. 

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348. .     Reise  im  Gebiet    des  Orinoko.     Mitt.  Ver.  Erdk. 

Leipzig,  1903,  pp.  33-6. 


310  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

349.  Passarge,  S.    Bericht  iiber  eine  Reise  in  venezolanischer 

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350.  Paterson,    S.     In   the   Wilds    of   Venezuela.      Scottish 

Gcogr.  Mag.,  vol.  xiv,  pp.  591-9  [1898]. 

351.  .     In  the  Valley  of  the  Orinoco.     Geogr.  ^ourn.,  vol. 

xiii,  pp.  39-50,  map  [1899] . 

Selwyn,  W.  S.    See  Passarge,  S. 

352.  Wears,  W.  G.     Prospects  of  Gold  Mining  in  Venezuela. 

Plan.     8vo.     London^  1888  [2  editions] . 

353.  Anon.     Journal  of  a  Trip  from  San  Thomefde  Angostura, 

in  Spanish  Guayana,  to  the  Capuchin  Missions  of 
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354.  .     Die  Expedition  der  Herren  Dr.  Blair,  Holmer 

und  Campbell  nach  den  Goldwaschen  von  Caratal 
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See  also  Nos.  21,  34,  85,  97,  102,  123,  193,  245. 

XIV.     THE   TERRITORIO   AMAZONAS. 

355.  Chaffanjon,   J.     Le    Bassin    de    I'Orenoque.      Gazette 

Geogr.  Paris,  t.  ii,  pp.  201-4  [1885]. 

356.  .     Das  Becken  des  Orinoco.     Ausland,  bd.  lix,  pp. 

323-7  [1886]. 

357.  .     L'Orenoque   et  ses   Sources.     Bull.   Soc.   Geogr. 

Comm.  Bordeaux.^  t.  x,  pp.  682-8  [1887]. 

358.  .     Exploration    du   bassin  de   I'Orenoque.     Compt. 

Rend.  Soc.  Geogr.  Paris,  1887,  pp.  97-100. 

359.  .     Mon   dernier  Voyage  au  Venezuela.     Bull.  Soc. 

Geogr.  Comm.  Paris,  t.  x,  pp.  9-20  [1887-8]. 

360.  .     Un  Voyage  au  Venezuela.     Bull.  Soc.  Geogr.  & 

Mus.  Comm.  St.  Nazaire,  t.  iv,  pp.  13-25  [1888] . 

361.  .     Le  Bassin  de  I'Orenoque.     Rev.  Geogr.  Internal. 

Paris,  t.  xiii,  pp.  64,  133-5  [i888]. 

362.  .     Voyage  a  travers  les  Llanos  du  Caura,  et   aux 

sources  de  I'Orenoque.  Jour,  du  Monde,  t.  Ivi, 
pp.  305-84.     Sketch  map  [1888]. 

363.  .      Voyage  au  sources  de  I'Orenoque.     Bull.  Union 

Gcogr.  Nord.  France,  t.  ix,  pp.  97-147  [1888]. 

364.  .     L'Orenoque  et  le  Caura.     2  maps.     Paris,  1889. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  311 

365.  Hiibner,   G.     Reise    in   das    Quellgebiet  des   Orinoco. 

Deutsche  Rundschau  Gcogr.^  bd.  xx,  pp.  14-20,  55-65 
[1897]. 

366.  Humboldt,  F.  H.  A.  y.     Note  sur  la  communication  qui 

existe  entre  I'Orenoque  et  la  riviere  des  Amazonas. 
Jouni.  Ecole  Poly.^  t.  iv,  pp.  65-8.     Map  [1810]. 

367.  .     Ueber  die   Verbindung  zwischen  dem   Orinoco 

und  Amazonen  fluss.  Zach's  Moiiail.  Correspondcnz, 
bd.  xxvi,  pp.  230-35  [1812]. 

368.  Michelena  y  Rojas,   F.     Exploracion   Official   por  la 

primera  vez  desde  el  Norte  de  la  America  del  sur 
siempre  par  Rios  .  .  .     Map.     8vo.     Brussels^  1867. 

369.  Montolieu,  F.     L'Ynirida.     Bull.  Soc.  Gcogr.  Paris,  ser. 

6,  t.  xix,  pp.  289-301  [1880]. 

370.  Morisse,  L.     Le  Caoutchouc  du  Haut-Orenoque.  Arch. 

Miss,  Sci.  Liit.  Paris,  ser.  4,  t.  i,  pp.  177-200 
[1891]. 

371.  Rusby,    H.    H.      Concerning     Exploration    upon    the 

Orinoco.  Alum.  Journ.  Coll.  Pharm.  N.Y.,  vol.  iii, 
pp.  185-91  [1896]. 

372.  Schomburgk,  R.  H.     Journey  from  Fort  San  Joaquim, 

on  the  Rio  Branco,  to  Roraima,  and  thence  by  the 
Rivers  Parima  and  Merevari  to  Esmeralda  on  the 
Orinoco  in  1838-9.  Journ.  R.  Geogr.  Sac,  vol.  x, 
pp.  191-247  [1841] . 

373.     .     Journey  from  Esmeralda  on  the  Orinoco  to  San 

Carlos  and  Moura  on  the  Eio  Negro.  .  .  .  Ibid., 
pp.  248-67  [1841]. 

374.  Stradelli,  E.     [Expedition  up  the  Orinoco.]     Boll.  Soc. 

Gcogr.  ItaL,  ser.  2,  t.  xii,  pp.  354-6,  500  [1887]. 

375.  .     Neir  alto  Orinoco.     Ibid.,  ser.  3,  t.  i,  pp.  715-44, 

832-54.     Map  [1888]. 

376.  Tavera-Acosta,  B.     Rio  Negro.    Pp.  149.   Svo.   Ciudad 

Bolivar,  1906. 

377.  Anon.     Robert  Schomburgk  und  seine  Reise  in  Guyana, 

am  Orinoco,  &c.  Globus,  bd.  xiv,  pp.  151-4,  186-9 
[1868]. 

378.  .     J.  Chaffanjon's   Reisen  im  Gebiete  des  Orinoko 

und  Caura.  Globus,  bd.  Ivi,  pp.  70-74,  88,  99,  195, 
212,  231  [1889]. 

See  also  Nos.  148,  160,  161,  245,  265,  327. 


312  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

XV.     RESOURCES,    COMMERCIAL    DEVELOPMENT. 
COMMUNICATIONS,  &c. 

379.  Berthelot,   S.     Notice  sur  les  nouveaux  ctablissements 

agricoles   fondes   au  Venezuela.     Bull.   Soc.   Gco^r. 
Paris,  ser.  2,  t.  xviii,  pp.  37-55  [1842]. 

380.  Briceno,  M.  de.    La  gran  cuestion  fiscal  de  Venezuela.  .  .  . 

Refornia  del  sislema  aduanero.    8vo.    Caracas,  1864. 

381.  Carruthers.  J.     The  Trincheras  Steep  Incline  on  the 

Puerto  Cabello  and  Valencia  Railway,  Venezuela. 
Proc.  Inst.  Civ.  Eng.,  vol.  xcvi,  pp.  120-30  [1888-9]. 

382.  Church,  G.  E.     The  Venezuela  Central  Railway  and  its 

Sources  of  Traffic.     8vo.     London,  1888. 
Diaz,  M.  Y.     See  Rojas,  A. 

383.  Engel,  F.     Die  Fahrstrasse  von  LaGuayra  nach  Caracas. 

Globus,  bd.  xiv,  pp.  334-7  [1868]. 

384.  Ernst,  A.     A  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  Venezuelan 

Department  at  the  Philadelphia  International  Exhi- 
bition.    i2nio.     Philadelphia,  1876. 

385. .     La  lExposicion  Nacional  de  Venezuela  en   1883. 

Fo.     Caracas,  1884. 

386.  Fiebeger,   G.  J.     Report   on  Bermudez  Asphalt.     Rep. 

Operat.  Eng.  Dept.  D.C.,  1894,  pp.  143-6. 

387.  Heinke,  E.  H.  A.     "  La  Guaira  and  Caracas  Railway." 

Proc.  Inst.  Civ.  Eng.,  vol.  ex,  pp.  299-303  [1892]. 

388.  Hortensio  G.  and  M.     Literatura  venezolana.     2   vols. 

Caracas,  1883. 
Houston,  J.  L.    See  Punchard,  W.  C. 
Humbert,  J.     See  Yincent,  L. 

389.  Magliano,  R.     L'Industrie  delle  Miniere  e  del  Caffe  nel 

Venezuela.     Bol.  Ministr.  A/an  Esteri^  189I)  vol.  ii, 
PP-  357-60  [189 1]. 

390.  Navarro,   E.     Venezuela.      Ferrocarriles,    comercio    y 

navegacion.     Rev,  Geogr.  Col.  y  Mercantil,  t.  iv,  pp. 
182-219  [1907]. 

391.  Oppel,  A.     Die  wirthschaftliche  Verhiiltnisse  von  Vene- 

zuela.    Globus,  bd.  Ivii,  pp.  171-4  [1890]. 

392.  Palacio,    R.    M.      El    Progreso    de   Venezuela.      8vo. 

Caracas,  1877. 

393.  Plumacher,  E.  H.     Petroleum   Deposits  in  Venezuela. 

Rep.  Comm.  Rel.  U.S.,  1880,  pp.  11-16. 

394. .     Petroleum     Development    in    Venezuela.      Rep. 

Cons.  U.S.,  vol.  xxi,  pp.  556,  557  [18S7]. 


73 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY  313 

395.  Plumacher,  E.  H.     Asphalt  and  Petroleum  Deposits  in 

Venezuela.     Ibid.,  vol.  xxvi,  pjx  487-91  [1888]. 

396.  Punchard,  W.  C.  and  J.  L.  Houston.     La  Guaira  Har- 

bour Works.     Proc.  Inst.  Civ.    Eng.,  vol.    cxv,    pp. 
332-42  [1893-4]. 

397.  QuieYreux,  H.     La  peche  des  pedes  au  Venezuela.  Rev. 

Maritime,  t.  cxlvi,  pp.  444-8  [1900]. 

398.  Richardson,  C.     On  the  Nature  and  origin  of  Asphalt. 

-Journ.  Soc.  Client.  Ind.,  vol.  xvii,  pp.  13-32  [1898]. 

399.  .     The  Modern  Asphalt  Pavement.     New  York,  1905 

and  1908. 

400.  Rizzetto,  R.     Un  episodic  della  Emigrazione  Italiana  nel 

Venezuela.  Boll.  Soc.  Geogr.  Ital.,t.  ii, pp.  141-56  [i 886]. 

401.  Rojas,  A.  and  M.  Y.  Diaz.     Apuntes  para  el  repertorio 

de  plantas  utiles  de  Venezuela.     Svo.     Caracas,  1866. 

402.  Ruiz,  P.  M.     Anuario   Estadistico  de  Venezuela,   1908. 

Pp.  Ixxx,  495.     Caracas^  1910. 

403.  Schottky,  A.     Die  Kupfererze  der  Districtes  von  Aroa, 

Venezuela.     Pp.  36.     Brest  au,  1877. 

404. .     Ueber  die  Kupfererze  des  Minen- Districtes  von 

Aroa   un   Venezuela.      55    Jahresber    Schler.    Ges. 
Kidtur,  pp.  45,  46  [1878]. 

405.  Sievers,  W.     Die  wirtschaftliche  Bedeutung  Ve-^ezuela's 

und  die  deutschen  Interessen  daselbst.     Die  Natur, 
bd.  li,  pp.  61-4  [1902]. 

406.  Yincent,  L.  and  J.  Humbert.    L'instruction  publique  au 

Venezuela.     Bull.  Soc.  Geogr.  Comm.  Bordeaux,  t.  xx, 
pp.  241-6,  381-9,  422-30  [1897]. 

407.  Anon.     The   London  Venezuelan  Guyana  Mutual  Emi- 

gration Society.     Prospectus,  with  Code  of  Laws, 

etc.,  in  the  Settlement  and  Colony  of  Pattisonville. 

1 2  mo.     London,  1869. 
408. .     Petroleum  in   Venezuela.      London   Iron  Trades 

Exchange,  vol.  xxviii,  p.  397  [1880J. 
409. .     Les   Sources    du    Petrole   de   Venezuela.     Ann. 

Industr.,  t.  xix,  p.  393  [1887]. 
410.  .     The  Asphalt  Deposits  of  Venezuela.     Eng.  Min. 

Journ.,  vol.  Ixxi,  p.  303  [1901]. 
411. .     Der    Bermudez  Asphalt-streit.     Asphalt  Teerind. 

Zeit.,  bd.  V,  pp.  287,  288  [1905] . 
See  also  Nos.  68,  69,  70,  132,  281,  291,  314,    316,  326, 

342,  345,  345,  346,  352,  370- 


INDEX 

Names  of  persons  in  capitals. 


Aborigines  (i  19-134)  ;  bibliography, 
302-304  ;  measures  for  civilisation 
of,  79.  97,  234 
Achaba,  Mt.,  220 
Administrative  divisions,  108,  109 
AGUIKRE,  LOPE  DE,  74-76 
ALDAMA,  JUAN  DE,  200,  201 
ALFINGER,  AMBROSIUS,  yj,  72, 

151 
Altagracia  (Zulia),  154 
AMALIVACA,  legend  of,  64 
Amazon  basin,  communication  with 

Orinoco,  232-234 
Amazonas  territory,  223-234  ;  popu- 
lation, 273  ;  bibliography,  310,  311 
Amazons,  villages  and  communities 

of,  123,  124 
Ameha,  Mt.,  220,  221 
AMPIES,  JUAN  DE,  71,  72 
Andes  of  Venezuela,  31,  32,  157-170  ; 

principal     heights,     282  ;     biblio- 

grapby,  306,  307 
ANDRE,  E.,  49,  220,  221 
Angostura.     See  Ciudad  Bolivar 
ANZOATEGUI,  General,  89 
Anzoategui,   State  of,   199-202,  208  ; 

population  of,  &c.,  269 
Apure,  State  of,  199,  258  ;  population 

of,  &c.,  269 
Aragua  de  Barcelona,  202  ;  popula- 
tion and  climate,  282 
Aragua  de  Maturin,  188 
Aragua,  State  of,  143-145  ;  population 

of,  &c.,  269 
Aravvak  Indians,  125,  133 
Araya,  Castle  of,  69,  70,  185  ;  Salina 

of,  244 
Area  of  the  Republic,  25 
Arecuna  Indians,  122 
Areo,  207,  208 
ARIAS,  DOMINGO,  186 
Arichi,  Mt.,  220 
ARISMENDI,    JUAN    BAUTISTA, 

87,90 
Army,  117,  118 

Aroa,  173,  174  ;  copper-mines  of,  246 
Arrowroot.     See  Manioc 
Asphalt,  45,  46,  150,  188,  190,  191,  202, 

203,  245 
Asuncion,    182  ;   foundation   of,   70  ; 

population  and  climate,  281 


Atabapo,  River,  224 
Atures  Rapids,  225,  226 
Atures  (town),  227 
AYARES,  PEDRO,  216 

B 

Bailadores,  167  ;  copper  near,  245 

Balata,  49,  212,  215,  218,  250 

Baniba  Indians,  125,  130-133,  230 

Banking,  113,  239,  240 

BARALT,  R.,  97,  152 

Barbacoas,  209 

Barcelona,    199-202  ;    salt    of,    244  ; 

railway  to  Guanta,  255  ;  population 

and  climate,  281 
Baria  Indians,  125 
Barinas,  210  ;  population  and  climate, 

282 
BARING  BROTHERS,  242 
Barquisimeto,    172,   247  ;   population 

and  climate,  281 
Barrancas,  192 

BASTIDAS,  DON  RODRIGO  DE,  73 
BATES,  H.  W.,  53 
Beiiical,  48 

BERMUDEZ,  GEN.  JUAN,  87 
"  Bermudez"  Asphalt  Lake,  188,  203, 

245 

BERRIO    Y    ORUNA,    DON    AN- 
TONIO DE,  78 

Betijoque,  169 

Bibliography,  287-314 

Bifurcation  of  the  Casiquiare  (Orinoco 
and  Amazon),  230,  232,  233 

Birds,  55-58 

Birth-customs,  Indian,  128 

Bishop  of  Coro,  first,  73 

BLANCO,  GUZMAN,  100,  loi 

BOBADILLA,    DON    FRANCISCO 
DE,  231 

Bobures,  165 

Bocono,  169  ;  population  and  climate, 
281, 

BOLIVAR,  SIMON  :  early  life  and 
character    of,    87 ;    dispatched    to 
England,    82  ;     work    as    libera-     I 
tor,    87-95  ;    death,    95  ;    publicly      I 
honoured,  97,  98  -^./ 

Bolivar  Railway,  145,   158,  172-174,    ' 
255 

Bolivar,  State  of,  211-222  ;  population 
of,  &c.,  270  ;  Bibliography,  308-310 


INDEX 


316 


Botany,  47-52  ;   Bibliography,   294- 

297 
BRASCHI,  SNR.  ANTONIO,  169 
Brazil,  frontier  with,  106 
Brazil  nuts,  49,  228 
British    Guiana,   frontier   with,    107, 

loS  ;  dispute  over,  102,  103 
British  legion,  91,  93,  94 
British   trade   with   Venezuela,    266, 

267.    See  Trade 
Budget,  283,  284 
Burial-customs,  Indian,  I2I,  128 
BURKE,  WILLIAM,  85 


Cable  Company,  254 

Cadupinapo  Indians,  122 

Caicara,  221 

Calabozo,  209  ;  population  and 
climate,  282 

Callao  goldfields,  213-217,  246 

Camaguan,  209 

CAXADIAN-VENEZUELAN  ORE 
CO.,  LTD.,  244 

Cannibalism  of  the  Conquistadores, 
72  ;  alleged  cannibalism  of  Indians, 
122,  123 

Caiio  Colorado,  203 

Canos,  29 

Capatarida,  178  ;  tobacco  of,  249 

Capital,  returns  on,  243  ;  British 
capital  in  Venezuela,  266 

Capitania  General  of  Venezuela 
established,  80 

Capuchin  missions,  79 

Carabobo,  Battle  of,  93,  94 

Carabobo,  State  of,  145-148  ;  popula- 
tion of,  &c.,  270 

Caracas,  138-141  ;  foundation  of,  76  ; 
university  founded,  80  ;  Junta  of, 
82  ;  brewery,  251  ;  Academy  of 
History,  251  ;  telephones,  254 ; 
tramways,  256  ;  population  and 
climate,  281  ;  bibliography,  304, 
305 

Carache,  169,  170 

Carapo,  218 

Caratal,  216 

Carenero-Rio    Chico    Railway,    142, 

143,  255 

Carib  Indians,  122-125 

Caribbean  Hills,  29,  30  ;  towns  of, 
&c.,  135-148,  181-192  ;  biblio- 
graphy, 304,  305,  307,  308 

Caribc  (tish),  59 

Caroni,  River,  213,  218,  219 

Carora,  176 

Carupano,  188,  189  ;  sulphur  near, 
245  ;  population  and  climate,  281 


Caruzana  Indians,  125 

"  Casa  Fuertc,"  Barcelona,  90,   200, 

201 
Casiquiare  bifurcation,  230,  232,  233 
Cassava.     Sic  Manioc 
CASTELLON,  JACOME  DE,7o 
CASTRO,  CIPRIANO,  103,  104,  176, 

189,  190 
CASTRO,  JULIAN,  99 
Cataniapo,  River,  227,  228 
Catatumbo,  River,  33,  153 
Cattle.     Sec  Stock-farming 
Caura,  River,  219-221 
Ceiba  tree,  49 
Central     Railway,     141,     142,     2^5, 

256 
Centralists.     See  Oligarca 
CHALBAUD,  GEN.^R.  D.,  226 
Chama,  River,  164 
CHAMBERLAIN,  COL.  C,  201 
Chaparro,  50 
Cliimo,  46 
Cictiagas,  28 
Cinchona,  50,  52 
Cinnabar,  222 
Ciudad    Bolivar,   212  ;    Congress   of 

Angostura,    91  ;     population     and 

climate,  282 
Climate,  33-36,  196,  222,  281,  282 
Coal,  44,  45,  150,  159,  l6i,  176,  202, 

243,  244 
Coche  (island),  185  ;  salt  of,  244 
Cocoa,   141-143,   155,    159,    188,   248, 

249  ;  wild,  228,  248 
Cociiiza  (fibre).     See  Fibre 
CODAZZI,  COL.  A.,  97,  251 
Coffee,  141-143,  159,  161,  248 
Coinage, 112-114,  239 
Cojedes,  State,  199,  210  ;  population 

of,  &c.,  270 
Cojoro  ;  Harbour  of,  151 
Colombia  ;  frontier  with,  106,  107 
Colombia  ;  Republic  of  Great,  92,  94, 

95 

Colon,  161 

Colonisation,  234,  263,  264  ;  Bibli- 
ography, 313 

COLUMBUS,  64,  65 

Communications,  252-260,  266  ;  Bib- 
liography, 312-314 

COMPANIA  ANONIMA  DE  NAVE- 
GACION  FLUVIAL  Y  COSTA- 
NERA,  226 

COMPANIA  DE  PETROLEO  DE 
TACHIRA,  161,245 

COMPANIA  GUIPUZCOANA,  80, 
209,  236 

Conquistadores  ;  character  of  the,  61, 
62  ;  cruelties  of,  66-70 


316 


INDEX 


Constitution  of  Venezuela;  of   1811, 

85,  86  ;  of  1819,   91  ;    changes  in, 

104,  105  ;  modern  form,  109 
Copaiba-balsam,  49,  155,  219,  250 
Copper,   45,  143,   159,   173,  174,  228, 

245,  246 
Coro,   177,   178.  247  ;  foundation   of, 

71  ;  population  and    climate,  281  ; 

first  bishop   of,  73  ;  coal   of,  243  ; 

Coro-La  Vela  Railway,  178,  256 
Cotton,  144-146,  170,  172,  249 
CRESPO,  President,  loi,  102 
Cristobal  Colon  (Puerto),  189,  190 
Ciia,  143 

Cuacua  Indians,  122 
Cubagua  (island),    183,  184  ;   history 

of,  67,  70,  73 
Cuchivero,  River,  221,  222 
Cucuhy,  234 
Cucstas,  169 
Cumana,  185,  186  ;  foundation  of,  69, 

70  ;  population  and  climate,  281 
Cumanacoa,  186 
Cura,  218 
Curasao,  179,  180 
Curare,  124,  227 
Curasicana  Indians,  122 
Curataquiche,  208 
Currency,  112-114,  239 


Debt  of  Venezuela,  240-243,  285 

DE  LESSEPS,  F.,  138 

Delta  Territory,  191,  192  ;  Indians  of, 

125-130,     191  ;     population,     273  ; 

Bibliography,    307,  so8 
DISKONTO      GESELLSCHAFT 

(BERLIN),  242 
Dividive.     See  Dye-woods,  &c. 
Dominican  missionaries,  67,  68 
D'ORBIGNY,  A.,  on  Quichuas,  130 
DRAKE,  SIR  F.,  77 
Duaca,  173 

DUDLEY,  SIR  R.,  45 
Duida,  Mt.,  230,  231 
Dye-woods,  51,  170,  191 


Earthquakes,  43,  44,  86,  164,  185 

Education,  112,  234,  251,  266 

Egret-plumes,  57 

Ejido,  165 

El    Callao,    215-217  ;   goldmine    of, 

246 
El  Cobre,  162 
"  EL  DORADO,"  legend  of,  73,  78, 

79,  origin  of,  63,  64 
Erewato,  River,  220 


Escuque,  i6g 

Esmeralda,  224 

Estanques,  165 

Ethnology,    1 19-134;    Bibliography, 

302-304 
Executive  ;  departments  of,  1 10,  117, 

118 

F 

P'alcon,  State  of,  177,  178  ;  population 

of,  &c.,  270  ;  Bibliography,  307 
FAXARDO,  FRANCISCO,  74 
Federal  District,  135-141  ;  population, 

273  ;  Bibliography,  304,  305 
Federalists.     Sec  Liberal 
FEDERMANN,  NICOLAUS,  73 
Fibre,  172,  178,  189 
Finance  ;  National,  264-266,  283-285 
Foreigners  ;  laws  relating  to,  iii 
Franciscan  missionaries,  67,  68,  79 
FREITES,  PEDRO  MARIA,  90,  201 


Galera  ;  La,  41 

GENERAL        FINANCE        AND 

CREDIT   CO.,   242 
Geology,   38-46  ;  Bibliography,  292- 

294 
German  residents,  152,  212,  239 
Gibraltar,    154,    155 ;     occupied    by 

patriots  in  1821,  93 
Goajiro  Indians,  1 19-122,  155 
Goat-farming,  150,  176,  178,  247 
Gold,  45,  159,  165,  189,  213-217,  228, 

231,  232,  236,  246 
GOMEZ,    GEN.  JUAN    VICENTE, 

104,  105,  145,  265,  266 
Government  ;  policy  of,  265,  266 
GRAMONT  (buccaneer),  155 
Great  Tachira  Railway,  154,  256 
Great  Venezuelan  Railway,  143-146, 

256 
Guacharo  (bird),  56,  57  ;  cave  of,  187 
Guaharibo  Indians,  125,  231 
Guahibo  Indians,  125 
Guaica  Indians,  126 
Guainia  River,  233,  234 
Guaipunavi.     Sec  Puinabi 
Guaiqueria  Indians,  67 
Gual  and  Espaha  Revolution,  80 
Guanare,      210 ;      population      and 

climate,  282 
Guaniamo,  River,  222 
Guano,  180 
Guanta,  202 
Guarapiche  River,  203 
"  Guarapo,"  137 
Guaraunos.     See  Warraus 
Guareca.    See  VVareca 


INDEX 


317 


Guarico,  River,  195 

Guarico,  State  of,  199,  209  ;  popula- 
tion of,  &c.,  270 

Guasipati,  215  ;  population  and 
climate,  281 

Guatavita  Indians,  63 

Guaviare,  River,  224 

Guayabai,  209 

Guajana,  26,  27,  211-234  ;  geology  of, 
38-40  ;  trees  and  plants  of,  47-50  ; 
goldfields  of,  213-217,  246  ;  cocoa, 
248  ;  old  roads  in,  257  ;  possibilities 
of,  263  ;  bibliography,  308-311 

Guayana  Vieja,  192,  210  ;  foundation 
of^  78  ;  taken  by  Raleigh,  79 

Guayungomo.     Sec  Maquiritare 

GUERRA,  L.  and  C,  expedition  to 
West  Indies,  66 

Guipuzcoana  Company.  Sec  Com- 
paiiia  Guipuzcoana 

H 

HARRISON,].  B.,  45 

Headless  men,  123 

Health,  public,  36,  37,  iii 

History,  61-105  !  Bibliography,  297- 

302 
Hospitality,  115,  165,  166,  205,  206 
Hot  springs,  44,  168,  169 
HUMBOLDT,  F.  H.  A.  von,  46,  56, 

209,  225 
HUTEN,  PHILIP  VON,  73 
HYLACOMYLUS,  MARTIN,  66 

I 

Imataca  Mts.,  192  ;  iron  of,  244 

IM  THURN,  SIR  E.,  on  Arawaks,  133 

Independence,  Declaration  of,  83 

Industries,  250,  251 

Inirida,  River,  224 

Insignia  of  the  republic,  118 

Iron,  45,  192,  228,  244 

J 

Jefc  Civil ;  functions  of,  no 
Jesuit  missions,  79,  122,  133,  134 
Justice,  administration  of,  in 


KARSTEN,  H.,  44 

KINGSLEY,  C.  ("Westward  Ho  !"), 

77 

L 
La  Ceiba  Railway,  158,  169,  255 
La  Grita,  162,  163 
La  Guaira,  135-137  ;  population  and 

climate,  281 


La  Guaira-Caracas  Railway,  137,  138, 

255 
LA     GUAIRA     HARBOUR     COR- 
PORATION, 136 

Lagunillas,  165 

"  Lii/as,"  220  ;  minerals  in,  228 

LANDAETA  ROSALES,  MANUEL, 
201 

Languages  ;  Indian,  126 

Lara,  State  of,  171-173,  I75-I77  ; 
population  of,  &c.,  271 

Las  Aves  Islands,  iSo 

LAS  CASAS,  BARTOLOME  DE, 
69,  70,  185 

"  Las  Ladcras"  166 

Las  Trincheras  hot-springs,  44 

La  Vela.  178 

La  Victoria,  144  ;  population  and 
climate,  281 

Lead,  4=; 

LEDESMA,  DON  ALONSO  AN- 
DREA DE,  77 

Legislature  of  Venezuela,  no,  in 

Liberal    party,  97 

LIDUENA,  GONZALO  PINA,  154 

Liquid  fuel,  262,  263 

Llanos,  27-29,  193-210,  246,  247  ; 
houses  on,  204-207  ;  commercial 
possibilities  of,  262  ;  bibliography, 
308 

Lobatera,  161 

LOSADA,  DIEGO  DE,  founder  of 
Caracas,  76 

Los  Apartaderos,  167 

Los  Castillos  (de  Guayana),  192 

Los  Roques  Islands,  180 

Los  Teques,  143,  144 ;  population  and 
climate,  281 

M 

Macanao,  182 

Maco  or  Macapure  Indians,  122 

Macusi  Indians,  122 

Macuto,  136 

Mahogany,  49 

Maipures  Rapids,  225,  226 

Maiquetia,  136 

Maiquetia-Macuto  Railway,  136,  255 

Mandawak  Indians,  126 

Manganese,  228 

Manioc,  116,  131,  142 

Mapoyo.     See  Cuacua 

Maquiritare  Indians,  122,  221,  232 

Maracaibo,  149-153  ;  Indians  in,  120; 
Bank  of,  240  ;  coal  of,  243  ;  Lake  of, 
33, 149,  150, 153,  154,  156 ;  "  Lights  " 
of,  156  ;  salt  of,  244  ;  population 
and  climate,  281 

Maracas  (rattles),  124,  125 

Maracay,  144,  145 


318 


INDEX 


Marapizano.    Sec  Caruzana 
Margarita  (island),   181-183  ;  named 

bv  Columbus,  65 
MARINO,    SANTIAGO,    87-90,   94, 

96,  265  ;  deserts  Freites,  90 
Maroa,  233 
Marriage  customs  ;  Indian,  125,  128, 

131-133 
Marriage  laws,  1 1 1 
Massacre   of   Spaniards  by  Indians, 

23I1  232 
Maturin,    202-20S  ;    population    and 

climate,  282 
MEAT   PRODUCTS  SYNDICATE, 

147,  247,  249 
Medicine-men,  121,  122,  130 
MENDOZA,  DON   JOAQUIN  MO- 
RENO DE,  212. 

Merevari  River,  232.     See  also  Caura 
Merida    (city),    163-165  ;    population 

and  climate,  281 
Merida ;    Cordillera    of,   32 ;    Sierra 

Nevada  of,  32,  164,  165,  282 
Merida,  State  of,  163-167  ;  population 

of,  &c.,  271 
'^  Mesas"  ;  28,  163,  194 
Mestizos ;    rising    of,    88 ;    transfer 

support  to  patriots,  92 
Milk  ;  vegetable,  155 
Mineral  wealth  and   mining,  44-46, 

148,  159,  173,  174,  243  ;   early   ex- 
ploitation, 74 

MIRANDA,  DON  FRANCISCO,  81, 
82  ;  dictatorship  and  death,  86 

Miranda,  State  of,  141-144  ;  popula- 
tion, &c.,  271 

Missions,  67,  70,  79,  80,  133,  134 

MONAGAS  ;  General,  89,^98,  99 

Monagas  ;    State    of,    187,   188,    199, 
202-208  ;  population,  &c.,  271 

Montalban,  146 

MONTEVERDE,  DON  DOMINGO 
DE,  86,  88 

Mora  (tree),  48,  49 

MORALES  ;  General,  89,  94 

MORGAN  ;     SIR     HENRY,     sacks 
Gibraltar,  155 

MORILLO  ;  General,  89,  90,  92 

Mosquitoes,   221  ;    mistaken    use   of 
name,  59 

Motatan,  168 

Motilones  Indians,  155 

Mucuchies,  167 

N 

Naiguata  (Peak),  29  ;  height  of,  282 

Naricual  coalmines,  202,  244 

Navy,  117  ;  dockyard,  147 

New  Andalusia  ;  Eastern  Venezuela, 
50  ;  named  by  Ojeda,  65 


New  Cadiz,  70,  73,  183,  184 

Nicharc,  River,  220 

NINO,  PEDRO  ALONSO,  66 

Nirgua,  175 

Nueva   Esparta  ;  State  of.  181-185  ; 

population,  &c.,  271  ;  Bibliography, 

307,  308 

O 
OCAMPO  ;  GONZALEZ  DE,  69,  70 
Ocumare  de  la  Costa,  148 
Ocumare  del   Tuy,  141  ;   population 

and  climate,  281 
Oil-bird.    Sec  Guacharo 
Oil-fields,  263.    See  Petroleum,  &c. 
OJEDA,  ALONSO  DE,  first  to  land 

in  Venezuela,  65,  149  ;  his  father,  68 
O'LEARY,  DANIEL  F.,  91,  201 
Olii^arca  party,  97 
ORDAZ,  DIEGO  DE,  72 
Orinoco,  211-234  ;  steamers  on,  212, 

224,  225,  258  ;  climate  of,  222 
Ortiz,  209 
Otomak  tribe,  122 
OVIEDO  Y  BANGS,  the  historian, 

quoted,  74 

P 
PACHECO,  ALONSO  DE,  73,  151 
PAEZ,  JOSE  ANTONIO,  90,  95-97 
Pampatar,  182 
Panama    Canal  ;    importance  of,   to 

Venezuela,  261-263 
Pao  copper-mine,  245 
Para  ;  Falls  of,  220 
Paragua,  River,  219 
Paraguana,  178 
Paramos,  162,   167,   169  ;    vegetation 

of,  52 
Pareca  Indians,  122 
Paria  ;   Gulf  and  Peninsula  of,  189, 

190 
Parima,  Mts.,  224 
Pasimonabi  Indians,  126 
PATERSON,  MAJOR  S.,  222 
Pauare  Indians,  122 
Pearl-fisheries,  182,  184,  236 
Pedernales,  190,  245 
Pedraza,  210 
Pericos,  224 
Petare,  141,  142 
Petroleum,  45,  46,  150,  159,  161,  169, 

177,  183,  185,  186,  188,  190,  191,245, 

262,  263 
Philanthropic  institutions.  III,  112 
Phosphate  of  lime,  180 
Piapoco  Indians,  125 
PIAR,  MANUEL,  87,  89,  90 
Piaroa  Indians,  125,  227 
PIMENTEL,  DON  JUAN,  76 


INDEX 


319 


Pimichin,  234 

PLASSARD,  on  Warraus,  129,  130 

PONCE  DE  LEON,  DON  DIEGO, 

76 

Population,  26  ;  density  of,  109 

Porlamar,  182,  183 

Portuguesa  chain,  31 

Portuguesa,  State  of,  199,  210  ;  popu- 
lation, &c.,  272 

Post  Office,  252-254 

Pregonero,  162 

Press,  118 

PRESTON,  SIR  AMYAS;  takes 
Caracas,  77,  78 

Protective  duties,  144,  146,  250,  251 

Puerto  Gabello,  147,  148  ;  and 
Valencia  Railway,  147,  256  ;  Meat 
Syndicate  and,  247  ;  population 
and  climate,  281 

Puerto  San  Juan,  188 

Puerto  Sucre,  185 

Puerto  Tablas,  213,  214 

Puerto  Villamizar,  154 

Puinabi  Indians,  125 

Punceres,  188 

Putucual ;  Lake  of,  30 

Q 

Quibor,  176 
Quichua  Indians,  125 
Quinine.    Sec  Cinchona 


Railways,  154,  158,  159,  255,  256,  266  ; 
Bibliography,  312-313 

RALEIGH,  SIR  WALTER,  78,  79, 
192 

Raudales.    Sec  Rapids 

Religions,  121,  129,  130,  131,  133,  208 

Revolutions ;  of  Gual  and  Espana, 
80,  81  ;  Wars  of  Independence, 
82-94  ;  internal,  95,  98-105 

Rice,  220,  221 

Rio  Caribe,  189 

Rio  Chico,  143 

Rio  Negro,  233,  234 

RIVAS,  FRANCISCO  ESTEBAN, 
201 

Roads,  137,  158,  159,  170,  172,  214, 
246,  256-258,  206 

"  Rocas  pintadas,"  63 

RODRIGUEZ,  CRISTOBAL,  197 

RODRIGUEZ,  SENORITA  DO- 
LORES, 201 

ROJAS,  DONA  JUAXA  DE  JESUS, 
201 

ROLANDO,  GEN.  A.,  201 

Rubber,  49,  50,  147,  220,  227,  229,  230, 
249,  250 

Rubio,  160,  161 


Saliba  Indians,  125 

Salon  Eliptico,  139 

Salt,  46,  150,  155,  185,  186,  244 

San  Antonio  (Monagas),  187 

San  Antonio  (Tachira),  161 

San  Carlos  (Cojedes),  2io;  population 

and  climate,  282 
San  Carlos  (Kio  Negro),  233 
San  Carlos  (Zulia),  155 
San   Cristobal,  159,  160  ;    population 

and  climate,  281 
San     Felipe,    174  ;     population    and 

climate,  281 
San  Felix,  213,  214  ;  massacre  of,  90 
San     Fernando     (de    Apure),     199  ; 

population  and  climate,  282 
San  Fernando  de  Atabapo,  224  ;  Popu- 
lation, 282 
San  Luis,  177 
San  Pedro  (de  Coche),  185 
Santa  Ana,  93.  169 

Santa  Barbara  Railway,  154,  158,  256 
"  Santa  Barbara,"  Savannah,  234 
Santa  Rita,  154 
Santa  Teresa,  142 
Sarrapia.    Sec  Tonka-bean 
Sarsaparilla,  222 
SCHRODER,   MR.  VICE-CONSUL 

(Maracaibo),  152 
Seasons,  34-36 

Seboruco,  163  ;  copper  of,  245 
Segovia  Highlands,  30,  31  ;  rocks  of 

(Segovia  Group),  41.     See  Falcon, 

Lara,  &c. 
Sernambi,  250 
Serrania  Costanera,  29  ;  Heights  of, 

282 
Serrania  Interior,  29  ;  Heights  of,  282 
Shipping,  258-260 
Sicapra,  218 
Sierra  Nevada  of  Merida,  32  ;  Heights 

of,  282.     See  Merida 
SIEVERS,  DR.  W.,  41,  153 
Silla  Peak,  La,  29  ;  Height  of,  282 
Silver,  159 
Sinamaica,  155 
Sipapo  River,  227,  228 
Siquisique,  177 
Slavery,  abolition  of,  99 
SOTO,  FRANCISCO  DE,  70 
SOUBLETTE,  President,  98 
SPEYER,  GEORGE  vox,  73 
SPIRA,  JORGE  DE.     See  SPEYER, 

GEORGE  vox 
Starch.     See  Manioc 
Stock-farming,  143, 150,  197,  198,  227, 

232,  246,  247,  262 
SUCRE,  JOSE  DE,  87,  185 


320 


INDEX 


Sucre,  State  of,  185-190  ;  Population, 

&c.,  272  ;  Bibliography,  307,  308 
Sugar,  137,  144,  161,  249 
Sulphur,  46,  189,  245 
Surveys,  251 


Tachira,  State  of,  159-163  ;  Population, 

&c.,  272  ;  Tachira  Railway,  154,  256 
Tamanaco  tribe,  122 
Tanneries,  250 

Tanning  barks,  51  ' 

Taparita  Indians,  122 
Tariba.  162 
TAVERA-ACOSTA,  quoted,  122,  125, 

126,  130,  227 
Telegraphs  and  telephones,  254 
Ticrra    calicnlc,  tcmplada    and  fria, 

34-36  ;  vegetation  of,  50-52 
Timber,  iso,  155,  159,  219,  228 
Timotes,  168 

Tobacco,  155,  159,  187,  249 
Tocuyo,  175,  176  ;  foundation  of,  73 
Tonka-beans,  49,  219,  220,  250 
Torbes,  River,  159,  160,  162 
Tovar,  167 
Trade,  235-251  ;   British  trade  with 

Venezuela,  266,  267  ;  statistics,  274- 

280  ;  Bibliography,  312-314 
Transport.    See  Shipping,  Roads,  &c. 
Travelling  ;  difficulties  of,  257 
Trona.    See  Urao 
Trujillo  (city),  168  ;  armistice  of,  92  ; 

population  and  climate,  281 
Trujillo,  State,   168-170  ;  population, 

&c.,  272 
Tucacas,  172,  173,  246 
Tucupita,  191 ;  population  andiclimate, 

282 
Tumeremo,  218 
Tupuquen,  216 
Turimquiri  (peak),  29  ;  height  of,  282 

U 
Uaica  Indians,  122 
Uajiba.    See  Guahibo 
Uayamara  Indians,  122 
Uayungomo.     See  Maquiritare 
Uiquire  Indians,  122 
Universities,  80,  251 
Upata,  214 
Uraca,  161,  162 

Uracoa  ;  reported  gold  near,  45 
Urao,  46,  165 
URDANETA,  GENERAL,  98 


Urica,  208 

URPIN,  JUAN,  199 
URRE,  FELIPE  DE.     See  HUTEN, 
PHILIP  VON 


Valencia,  145,  146  ;  Lake  of,  30,  145  ; 
population  and  climate,  281 

Valera,  168,  169 

Vargas  (town).    Sec  El  Cobre 

VARGAS,  President,  96,  97,  265 

Venamo  valley,  217 

Venezuela  ;  origin  of  name,  65 

Venezuelan  Railway.  See  Great  Vene- 
zuelan Railway 

Ventuari,  River,  230-232 

VESPUCCI,  AMERIGO,  fraudulent 
claims  of,  65,  66 

Vichada  River,  229 

Villa  de  Cura,  145  ;  population  and 
climate,  281 

Vineyards,  146 

W 

Waiomgomo.     See  Maquiritare 
WALDSEEMUELLER,      M.       See 

HYLACOMYLUS,  M. 
WALL,  G.  P.,  40,  42,  44 
Wareca  Indians,  125 
Warrau  Indians,  125-130,  191 
Water  power,  226,  227,  256 
Waterways,  210,  258 
Welser,  rule  of  the,  71-73 
Wheat,  141,  144,  159 
Women  ;  education  of,  112 


Yabarana  Indians,  122 
Yaracuy  ;  State  of,  1 73-1 75  ;  popula- 
tion, &c.,  272 
Yaritagua,  175 
Yaruro  Indians,  126 
Yavita,  234 
Yavitera  Indians,  125 


Zamora  ;  State  of,  199,  2io  ;  popula- 
tion, &c.,  273 

ZARAZA,  General,  89 

Zaraza  (town),  209 

Zoology,  52-60  ;  Bibliography,  294- 
297 

Zuha,  State  of,  149-156  ;  population, 
&c.,  273  ;  Bibliography,  306 


f.NWlN  BROTHERS,   LIMITED,  THE  GRKSHAM   PRESS,   WOKING  AND  LONDON. 


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